how to write an international law essay

Free International Law Essay Examples & Topics

If you’re looking for international law essay examples or writing ideas, you’re in the right place. Our team has worked out a list of international law topics for an essay that can help you write your paper. We’ve explored why it’s worth your time to study it as well. Thus, first of all, we invite you to understand what international law is.

International law (same as public international law) is the set of legal rules, standards, principles, and norms between sovereign states and other international legal actors. These rules are recognized by most states and can be applied to govern the relationships between them.

So, why study it?

The primary purpose international law is maintaining peace and justice. That’s when the importance of international law becomes clear. Without it, countries would not be able to solve issues in an organized manner.

Another critical role of international law is promoting business-related and industrial development worldwide. International law and its principles view economic growth as a global public responsibility. Trading, negotiating, producing, and investing worldwide is possible due to standard norms and shared regulations.

To be able to write an exceptional international law essay, you need an excellent paper idea. Here you will get some amazing topics ! You can use these international law essay ideas for composing your paper or read them for inspiration.

Use the following ideas to practice or complete your assignment:

• The evolution of antitrust laws in the UK.
• Comparison of gun control laws in the US and Sweden.
• Child labor in the global economy and laws against it.
• Rules of private international law.
• Conflicts of regulations in public international laws.
• Why do nations have to obey modern international law?
• New international commercial court drafting of laws.
• Reasons why the former first lady of Ivory Coast is tried for crimes against humanity.
• Palestinian territory occupied: possible ways to resolve the conflict.
• “Access the Sea” case in Bolivia and Chile.
• Influence of the United Nations on modern international law.

In this paragraph, we’ve combined a list of international law essay questions. They are useful for numerous reasons, some of which we’ve already explained above. The key aspect is that they can help you practice writing international public law essays.

Here are our seven international law assignment topics:

• List the theories that explain the relationships between domestic and international law.

In this essay, a student is invited to explore the relationships between domestic and international laws. Indeed, these relationships are genuinely complex. While listing theories, try to answer the question about the position of domestic law within the international one.

• Explain what is the role of international law in the modern world?

It’s a great essay topic that gives a lot of space for students to develop ideas. Indeed, the role of international law in the modern world is hard to overestimate.

• Analyze legal systems of Asia and Africa.

An analysis of these two legal systems can be a fascinating endeavor. Additionally, explain what the difference between “laws” and “legal systems” is.

• Illustrate legal justifications for the use of force?

Here, we urge students to explain the legal thinking behind the implementation of force. Illustrate when and how legal entities can apply the laws on the use of power.

• What do you think about Kosovo as a state?

It’s a pretty personal question. However, be mindful of basing your response on the laws and principles of international law. A great topic that can capture the reader’s attention if delivered correctly.

• Show the importance of recognition within the international legal system.

Here you should demonstrate what importance acknowledgment plays in international law. Additionally, enumerate the conditions nations should fulfill to be recognized.

• Discuss the extent to which international law protects the rights of minorities?

When answering this essay question, keep in mind how international law defines minorities and what it does to protect these groups. Explain who can claim minority rights.

Below, we’ve collected interesting and easy international law topics for research papers. Check them out!

• The role of international law in solving global environmental issues.
• How to balance international obligations regarding human rights and state sovereignty.
• The international criminal court’s effectiveness and challenges.
• How international trade law impacts global economic relations.
• Protecting civilians in war zones according to international humanitarian law.
• How international refugee law evolved: challenges and responses.
• The role of international law in combating transnational organized crime.
• Ways of balancing innovation and access to knowledge according to international intellectual property law.
• Historical and current conflicts related to territorial disputes.
• Indigenous peoples and their rights under international law.
• Effectiveness and limitations of the United Nations peacekeeping operations.

This collection of public international law essay topics delves into diverse areas of the subject. Check them out below:

• Liability regarding state responsibility for environmental damage.
• How international organizations promote global health and well-being.
• What legal challenges does international law face in the digital age?
• Ways of balancing preservation and security in protecting cultural heritage during armed conflicts.
• The rights and obligations of states during the refugee crisis.
• International legal approaches and cooperation in combating transnational terrorism.
• International trade law and dispute resolution in global commerce.
• The right to self-determination in indigenous peoples in the context of international legal frameworks.
• State obligations in mitigating climate change.
• Analysis of the responsibility to protect (r2p) and its implementation challenges.
• Violations of international humanitarian law in non-state armed groups.
• The use of force in international law during humanitarian interventions.
• Corporate accountability for violations of human rights: what are the legal avenues for redress?
• International criminal law and accountability for war crimes.
• Ways of balancing maritime interests and environmental conservation.

Thank you so much for reading our article. We hope it can help you in your next international law assignment. Now you can check the free essays below to see how other students handled the task.

75 Best Essay Examples on International Law

Global justice in modern world.

• Words: 2073

Legality of Operation Neptune Spear (Geronimo)

• Words: 1107

Genocide in the “Ghost of Rwanda” Documentary

• Words: 1156

International Law Is Not Really Law

• Words: 2045

Costa Rica v. Nicaragua Maritime Delimitation

• Words: 1163

Temple of Preah Vihear: Cambodia vs Thailand

• Words: 1001

The Principle of Non-Intervention in Contemporary International Law

• Words: 1484

The Main Sources of International Humanitarian Law

The european union citizens’ directive.

• Words: 1504

Obama Had Authority to Order Operation Geronimo

The discussion of the geneva convention, united states supreme court justices, the foxtrot marines boarding in the territorial sea, operation geronimo’s international liability, the international covenant on social and cultural rights: ratification by cyprus.

• Words: 2322

US Constitution and International Law & Policy

Aspects of the u.n. charter and the us constitution, discussion thread: international court, estonia’s membership in the un security council.

• Words: 1183

The European Union Infringement Procedure

• Words: 1472

Being Outside International Criminal Court Jurisdiction

The russo-ukrainian war’s impact on the world.

• Words: 1497

The Smart Border Declaration by the USA and Canada

International law: definition and uses.

• Words: 1058

The European Group of Legal Systems

• Words: 1413

Aspects of Talent Visas

Article 102 of the treaty of the functioning of the european union: abuse of dominance.

• Words: 1997

Choice of Law in Contract Under Rome Convention

• Words: 11144

Conceptualizing Sovereignty Transformations

• Words: 1528

Legal Standard of Genocide: The Enduring Problem

Reaction paper about treaty bodies of human rights 2020, transnational crime and international policing.

• Words: 1944

The Paris Club in the International Law Context

• Words: 1654

International Law, Security, and Global Peace

• Words: 2418

Australia’s Federal System Is in Need of Reform

• Words: 1574

The Concept of Jurisdiction in International Law

Human trafficking: enforcing laws worldwide.

• Words: 1110

Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties

International law: war crimes and crimes against humanity.

• Words: 4971

International Court Punishing Rape in Armed Conflict

• Words: 4570

Effects of the UK Exit From the Union

• Words: 2562

Marxism and International Law

• Words: 1395

Transforming the Existing International Humanitarian Law

• Words: 3067

Oil-For-Food Program: International Law Issues

• Words: 1973

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

Terrorism, human trafficking, and international response.

• Words: 1201

International Law in the 20th Century History

• Words: 1172

Genocide Factors in Rwanda and Cambodia

• Words: 2481

Global Commons and International Environmental Policies

Trademark laws between the us and china.

• Words: 1384

Identifying the Concepts of the International Law

Human life regulation by united nations documents, eu’s single market: article 36 tfeu.

• Words: 3000

International Criminal Justice and Atrocity

• Words: 4141

The Flags of Convenience’ System

• Words: 1115

Service of the United Nations and Reparations

• Words: 3236

EU Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive

• Words: 2224

Assassination: Moral, Legal, Political and Practical Views

• Words: 2570

Legitimacy of International Criminal Law

• Words: 1119

Human Rights and Legal Framework in Poor Countries

• Words: 1265

Maritime Conflict: Offshore Political Geography

Us opposition to international law, public international law: norms and sources, international law and its regulations, politics: the gulf cooperation council trade agreements, the free movement of persons under the european union law.

• Words: 1438

Principle of International Law

• Words: 3321

Law in the International System and Its Aspects

• Words: 1912

International Relations Issues

International law and vienna conventions.

• Words: 1506

The right of self-determination in International law

• Words: 4273

International Legal Norms

• Words: 2227

The Efficacy, Nature and Debates of the Modern International Law

Prescriptive jurisdiction and enforcement jurisdiction in international law, highs and lows of the geneva convention.

• Words: 2135

Support NYU Law

• Writing a Student Note
• Writing Process

The Writing Process

Typical outline of a note.

• Introduction : The Introduction should include a description of the problem, a thesis statement, and a roadmap of the argument to follow.
• Part I : This section should be used to set forth the background information on which the later analysis in your Note will depend. It should be a general and broad review of the important issues relevant to your topic that educates your readers about everything they must know in order to understand your Note. When writing this section, be sure to use language that a reader who is not familiar with your Note topic can easily understand.
• Part II : This section should examine the major cases and statutes that your Note will be analyzing. It will contain the main portion of your analysis of how the law stands. For example, if your topic focuses on a circuit split, Part II is where you would explain the conflicting holdings and rationales. You may also choose to discuss what other commentators have said about your topic and these cases.
• Part III : This section is where you will contribute your own analysis of and views on the topic. You will say why you feel the cases/commentary you analyzed are wrong and what should be done instead. In the case of a circuit split, say which side is better and why. Part III is where you should place your original thoughts and contributions, along with the conclusion of your Note.
• Conclusion : The Conclusion should briefly restate what you have already said. You should not focus too much on this section when preparing this Prospectus.

Tips on Legal Writing—Patrick Garlinger ’09

While some may have a greater facility for language than others, there is nothing natural about good writing. It comes from practice—and from rewriting.

Advice on writing is easily dispensed but difficult to follow. This is largely because writing requires enormous discipline. The following are six basic principles that provide a structure for the writing process. They are not specific to academic writing or to legal writing in particular but may be especially helpful in a law school environment where time to write is a precious commodity. Over the years these guidelines have given me the discipline to start and finish, among other academic texts, a student Note.

Writing is like a muscle: Exercise it regularly.

For most students, the Note is the first experience with publishable academic writing. In college, all-nighters might produce passable term papers, but that approach certainly won’t do here. Nor will exam writing really prepare you for legal academic writing. Instead, good academic writing requires regular practice. Law school does little to assist here, since all too often the periods for working on one’s Note are isolated and scattered due to the time constraints imposed by classes, journal work, clinics, and extra-curricular activities. You may pursue a Directed Research as a way to carve out a block of time dedicated to the note or, alternately, write your note to fulfill the writing requirement of a seminar. Winter break is also a great time to make substantial progress on a first draft. Either way, you should try to work steadily on the Note so as to avoid losing momentum and focus.

Good writing does not come naturally: Read good writers.

While some may have a greater facility for language than others, there is nothing natural about good writing. It comes from practice—and from rewriting. To practice without models of good writing is, however, pointless. You must read other legal writers carefully, for both their analysis and their style. As a starting point, find a few sources that inspire your intellectual juices and, over time, keep adding to the list. Read and analyze how those writers introduce their topic and communicate their thesis. Look carefully at the architecture of their argument, their lexicon and sentence structure. In short, read them as both legal scholars and writers. Emulate (but do not copy, of course). Additionally, you may benefit from style guides that provide specific guidelines for legal writing (e.g., Bryan Garner’s Legal Writing in Plain English ). Avoid legalese. A student note should not read like a law school exam or a brief.

Know your thesis: Say it in a single sentence.

One of the most difficult tasks facing a student writer is finding a topic and narrowing the thesis. The student Note is rather short—and because you need to provide background information for your generalist readers, there is little room for sweeping analysis. As such, you should target a very discrete issue. Yet, in my experience, articulating, not finding, the topic is the most difficult task facing a student writer.

You should be able to state your thesis in one or two sentences at most. Anything longer suggests that the topic too unwieldy for a student note or, more probably, that the writer still has not fully understood the nature of the project. Pith not protraction should be your goal. If you can state your thesis in a single sentence, that clarity and concision will guide you throughout the rest of the writing process, helping to avoid unfortunate meanderings or excess material that is not essential to the argument. Simply put, if you cannot summarize your note in one or two sentences, you don’t have a thesis.

Know your writing mode: Respect your rhythm.

Everyone has a writing mode—when you are most inclined to write and how you go about composing. Some of us are “whittlers.” We write and write and write. Later, we will edit and “whittle” away the excess. We refine our ideas in the process of writing, often repeating the same thoughts in multiple guises until we hit on just the right formulation. Others are “refiners” who write just a few sentences or a paragraph and then revise and polish it to perfection before moving on. Similarly, you may have a natural rhythm when it comes to the time of day when your writing seems to flow most easily. A friend of mine prefers to write in the mornings before she has any tea or coffee, using what I call the “carrot” method of motivation.

Respect your writing style; recognizing how you work is important to maximizing it. It may prove futile to try to write against your natural rhythm. If I try to refine as I write, or if I write in the middle of the afternoon, I find myself producing very little.

Everyone suffers from writer’s block: Switch gears or put it down and rest.

Even when you know your writing mode, writing can be a difficult process; your energy comes in fits and spurts, your love for your topic waxes and wanes. When you hit a road block, change it up. Sometimes very simple changes can give you a boost. When I find myself struggling, I switch fonts, or change the spacing from single to double. Often the effect is just to defamiliarize the text, so you see it differently. If writer’s block still persists and the words elude you, take a break. Sometimes a day or two can make a difference in how the argument reads to you—the logical leaps, grammatical errors or infelicitous word choices will leap off the page.

There is a danger, though, in always caving at the first resistance to writing. Writing is hard work. It requires endurance and persistence. Force yourself to try to write for at least 10-15 minutes. A mentor was fond of saying, “Screw your a-- to the chair and don’t get up.” Like exercise, sometimes the thought of writing is more painful than the actual practice, and once you start, you find it comes more easily than anticipated.

Never fall in love with your own writing: Edit with a vengeance.

This piece of advice is owed to a former mentor who repeated it as a mantra. Whether you are a whittler, a refiner, or somewhere in between, we often fall in love with our own prose, unable to let go of a snappy sentence or an ingenious turn of phrase. Editing is the key to good writing, however, and you cannot be afraid to leave material on the cutting room floor.

Place yourself in the reader’s position and ask yourself if the sentence/paragraph/section is really essential. Because we often think we know what our words mean, we fail to realize that our readers may not find our thoughts to be so crystalline. Defamiliarize your own writing by putting the text away or it may be helpful to print out and proofread in hard copy; words will look different on the page than on the computer screen. Finally, avoid the fetish of the footnote as the last refuge for material that should be cut. It is cliché but true that less is often more.

Additional Resources

• Writing Workshop Video : A September 2008 presentation by Vice Dean Barry Friedman, Professor Florencia Marotta-Wurgler, Patrick Garlinger, ’09, and Ilana Harmati, ’10, on student legal writing.
• Eugene Volokh, Academic Legal Writing: Law Review Articles, Student Notes, and Seminar Papers (2003)
• The Bluebook : the guide to legal citation to use in writing and editing legal scholarship.

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How to Write a Law Essay: A Comprehensive Guide with Examples

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Let's put it this way: if you are studying law, you will agree that writing a law essay is no easy feat. Whether you’re dealing with case law, statutes, or legal principles, structuring your essay correctly and presenting your arguments effectively are key to achieving a high grade. This guide will walk you through the essentials of writing a law essay, including structure, introduction examples, and practical tips to help you produce a first-class essay.

A Law Essay Structure

What is the basic structure of a law essay? A well-structured essay not only presents your arguments clearly but also demonstrates your grasp of legal concepts. Here’s a typical structure for a law essay:

Introduction

Overview : Briefly introduce the topic and outline the key issues. Thesis Statement : Clearly state your main argument or position. Purpose : Indicate how the essay will address the issues and what the reader can expect.

Issue Identification : Clearly identify and explain the legal issues or questions. Legal Analysis : Discuss relevant case law, statutes, and legal principles. Argument Development : Develop your arguments logically, providing evidence and analysis to support your points. Counterarguments : Consider and address potential counterarguments or alternative viewpoints.

Summary : Recap the main points and arguments. Reinforcement : Restate your thesis in light of the evidence presented. Final Thoughts : Offer any final reflections or implications of your analysis.

Crafting an Effective Introduction

The introduction of a law essay sets the tone for the rest of your work. A strong introduction should provide a clear overview of the topic and establish the context for your argument. Here’s how you can structure it:

• Hook : Start with an engaging statement or question related to the topic. This could be a relevant quote, a brief anecdote, or a provocative question.
• Context : Provide background information to help the reader understand the relevance of the topic.
• Thesis Statement : Clearly outline your main argument or position. This should guide the direction of your essay.
• Roadmap : Briefly outline how you will address the issues and structure your argument.

Example of a Law Essay Introduction:

“The principle of judicial review is a cornerstone of the British legal system, ensuring that all public authorities act within their legal boundaries. This essay explores the scope and limits of judicial review, focusing on recent judicial decisions that have reshaped its application. By analysing key case law and statutory developments, this essay will argue that while judicial review remains a vital check on executive power, recent trends indicate a shift towards more restrained judicial intervention. The discussion will be organised into three main sections: an examination of the historical development of judicial review, an analysis of contemporary judicial approaches, and an evaluation of the implications for future judicial oversight.”

Writing the Body of the Essay

The body of your law essay is where you provide detailed analysis and develop your arguments. Follow these steps to ensure clarity and depth in your writing:

• Identify the Issues : Clearly define the legal issues or questions at hand. This section should set the foundation for your analysis.
• Provide Legal Analysis : Discuss relevant case law, statutes, and legal principles. Be sure to provide brief summaries of relevant cases, discuss any statutes or legislative provisions relevant to the topic and explain any key legal principles or doctrines that apply to the issues.
• Develop Your Arguments : Present your arguments logically, using evidence and analysis to support your points. Ensure that each paragraph transitions smoothly to the next, maintaining a clear and coherent flow.
• Address Counterarguments : Consider potential counterarguments or alternative viewpoints. Address these within your essay to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Example of Argument Development

“In the landmark case of R (on the application of Miller) v. Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (2017), the UK Supreme Court reaffirmed the principle that significant constitutional changes require parliamentary approval. The court’s decision highlighted the importance of maintaining parliamentary sovereignty in the face of executive decisions. However, recent judicial trends suggest a cautious approach towards intervening in political matters, reflecting a broader shift towards judicial restraint. This shift raises questions about the future scope of judicial review and its role in holding the executive accountable.”

Crafting a Strong Conclusion

Your conclusion should summarise the key points discussed and reinforce your thesis. Avoid introducing new information; instead, focus on synthesising your arguments and providing a final perspective. Keep in mind the following:

• Summarise Main Points : Briefly recap the key issues and arguments presented in the body.
• Restate Thesis : Reaffirm your thesis statement, demonstrating how it has been supported by your analysis.
• Final Thoughts : Offer any concluding reflections or implications. This could include suggestions for further research or practical implications of your findings.

Example of a Law Essay Conclusion:

“In conclusion, while the principle of judicial review continues to serve as a crucial mechanism for ensuring accountability, recent developments indicate a more nuanced approach by the judiciary. The balance between maintaining judicial oversight and respecting the limits of judicial intervention is delicate. As demonstrated through recent case law and statutory changes, the evolving nature of judicial review reflects broader shifts in constitutional theory and practice. Future developments will likely continue to shape the scope and application of judicial review, underscoring the need for ongoing scholarly and judicial attention.”

Final Tips for Writing a Law Essay

• Use clear and precise language to convey your arguments. Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences.
• Ensure all claims and arguments are well-supported by legal evidence and analysis.
• Always edit and proofread your essay for clarity, coherence, and correctness. Ensure that your writing adheres to legal academic standards.

Read some complete law essay examples here.

Final Remarks

Writing a law essay involves understanding the structure, crafting an effective introduction, developing your arguments, and presenting a clear conclusion. By following the guidelines and examples provided, you can create a well-organised and compelling essay. Remember, the quality of your analysis and the clarity of your arguments are key to achieving a first-class result.

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General Principles of International Law And Customary International Law

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If you have been a law student, or currently are one, the chances are that you may have been required to prepare an essay document consisting of the general principles of international law and customary international law. In fact, knowing these principles is a basic premise for many law students, especially if they wish to further specialise in different fields of law study. However, admittedly, preparing a document of this nature can’t be an easy task, which is why students often have to rely on law essay writing services to provide them with the right kind of assistance and guidelines.

In simple terms, Customary International Law is a segment of international law itself in which legal teams deal with the principle and code of custom. It isn’t separate from the entity of international law; rather it stems from it since international law is itself a principle which recognises “norms of general or customary international law, which are then binding on all states”. These may be binding laws such as renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy.

The international law furthermore is reliant on four primary formal sources: treaties, customs, and principles of law. The fourth source, that of judicial decisions and the teachings of publicists, are segmented as “subsidiary sources”.

Furthermore, the international law has undergone further change, owing to the changes chartered by United Nations itself, which has set out the fundamental premises of modern public international law to promote human rights and national welfare of all citizens on a global scale. This has meant that there is strict limitation against the occupation of a territory by force or the use of power or authority on or against other states.

In this manner, international law has come to integrate many policies which are targeted towards the general betterment of the citizens. And the customary international law, a sub-branch of international law, are acknowledged by the global communal platforms to promote non- inviolable rights. Regardless of the codification of these laws, states are required as per the requirement of customary international law to abide by these.

A customary international law which is accepted by international communities is that of Jus cogens in which no derogation is ever permitted. In abiding by these laws, international communities are prohibited from indulging in activities of torture, slavery, genocide, crimes of humanity, etc. It is important to remember that these laws are not transposable, and all international communities have to follow it regardless of their domestic or international codification. The codification takes places through the passage of domestic laws and treaties.

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How to Write a Law Essay

Essay wriring.

A law essay is an academic writing assignment that requires you to discuss a particular legal matter. You may have to argue for or against a particular issue, or simply explain the law in your jurisdiction. Law essays are often assigned at the undergraduate and graduate levels. They can also be found on professional exams, such as those for the bar exam or other certifications. If you're looking for tips on how to write a law essay, here are some tips to get started:

Start with a question

When writing an essay, you need to start with a question. The best way to do that is by answering the law essay question. But it's not enough just to answer the question; rather, you should make sure your answer is relevant.

You need to know the law, and this means having a firm understanding of what is stated in case law and statutes. You'll also have to analyse the question so that you can form an argument on behalf of one side or another of a legal issue. This will involve discussing arguments for each side and then deciding which one is more convincing or fits better with precedent cases.

Don't just describe the law; instead, try taking a clear and concise line of argument regarding how judges might interpret particular pieces of legislation when faced with new situations or scenarios that fall under their scope but weren't contemplated at its inception—and don't forget signposts!

To do this, you will need to use evidence to support your legal argument and show that you have understood the question. The best way to answer the law question is by using at least two pieces of evidence, one from your own work and one from someone else’s work. You can do this by quoting cases or legal literature, or by quoting experts in the field who have written books or articles about it.

Make sure the answer is relevant

In order to make sure your answer is relevant, you must ask yourself a few questions. What does this question mean? Is there a particular aspect of the question that I need to address? How can I best address this aspect of the question in my answer?

If you don't understand what a question is asking, reread it until you do. Your instructor can be very specific about how they want their questions answered. If they haven't provided any guidance on how they would like their questions answered, or if it seems like there are multiple ways to answer them, then ask them for clarification before starting any research for your essay.

Don't waffle on when answering your essay topics! If there's not much information available about an issue or topic you're writing about in your essay and no one has ever studied it before, then don't generalize too much: just state what we do know and keep going from there.

Discuss each argument critically

In your essay, you should discuss whether you agree or disagree with the viewpoint expressed by each side. Keep in mind that your analysis does not have to be purely objective; if you wish, you may express your personal opinion and explain why.

You should also note any weaknesses in either argument and highlight any important information that was omitted from one or both sides' arguments. You could even include examples from court cases or legislation that support or refute the points made by each side.

It is important that you avoid over-reliance on any one source of information when writing your essay—this means textbooks, journals, and other academic writing can't replace direct experience as a lawyer!

Consider the law in relation to other legal authorities

You should make sure you are referring to the right laws and legal authorities. It is important to know what other legal agreements have been made in relation to your topic, as well as any other relevant legislation.

If you are discussing healthcare law, for example, it would be a good idea to look at how other countries deal with similar issues and how they differ from your system.

Use signposts, and other markers of structure, in your essay

Another way you can make your essay easier to read is by using signposting. Signposting is a method of writing that helps the reader follow your argument and shows them how the different parts of an essay relate to one another. You can use it to explain your argument, like this:

As this signpost suggests, there are two parts—a positive statement ("medical marijuana can be effective") and a negative ("but it has side effects"). The second part helps readers understand the first part better by describing why medical marijuana has side effects (because it's not treated like other drugs).

This kind of structure enables you and others who read your essay later on down the road (for example, if someone wants to cite it in their own work) to see what goes where within each paragraph:

●       Introduction: establishes topic & thesis statement

●       3 supporting paragraphs each with 1 or 2 sub-points from above

●       Conclusion: reiterates topic & thesis statement

Take a line of argument that is both concise and clear

This is the main point you are going to make, so it needs to be both concise and clear.

Concise means that you don't repeat yourself—or anything already said by someone else.

Clear means easy-to-understand language with no ambiguity or overly technical vocabulary included unless absolutely necessary for clarity purposes; again, think about how frustrating it can be when something doesn't make sense!

Write an introduction that is concise and coherent

The introduction should be concise and coherent. It should not be too long, as it will put off the reader and make them lose interest in your argument. The first paragraph is the most important section of your essay and it should summarise what you are going to discuss in more detail later on. You can also include a question that has been posed by a previous scholar or judge if you want to start with an interesting question or topic for discussion.

Write an analytic conclusion that addresses the question directly

You've already done the hard work in writing your introduction and body paragraphs, so there’s no need to introduce any new ideas in the conclusion. Instead, you should be focusing on summarising the main points of your essay.

In particular:

●       Reiterate and restate the question (this will help you focus on exactly what you were asked)

●       Summarise each of your main points in turn - but don't spend too long on this or you'll risk repeating yourself (a good rule of thumb is that a paragraph should take up about one-third of a page).

Reorganise – reword – rewrite – revise as you go along until you are satisfied that it addresses the question

It is important to be prepared to do a lot of rewriting and reorganizing as you go along. This is because the process of organizing your thoughts will cause you to change them, and this is where your essay will really come into its own. You should not be afraid of making big changes at this stage, as it will help you write an excellent essay. Your marker will not penalise you for making changes, especially if they improve the quality of your ideas or writing style. The only thing that matters is that when they are finished reading your essay, they feel satisfied by what they have read – so if there are any areas that need addressing then do so in order to make sure that this happens!

Learn to write essays

We have been working in this industry for years and we have seen every kind of problem imaginable when it comes to law essay writing. Our team knows how to write an effective essay and how to ensure that it will get you the grade that you need.

How to Write Essays

Introduction for an essay.

Public Law for Everyone

by Professor Mark Elliott

Writing a Law essay? Remember to argue!

Providing advice in the abstract about how to write Law essays is difficult because so much depends on the nature of the question you are answering. It’s also important to take into account whatever are the expectations for your particular course, degree programme or university. Nevertheless, a useful rule of thumb, I think, is that a good Law essay will normally set out and advance a clear thesis or argument . (Note that I’m referring here to essays as distinct from problem questions: the latter call for a different approach.)

The need for an argument

Some answers explicitly call for this. Take, for example, the following essay title:

‘Do you agree that parliamentary sovereignty is the most important principle in the UK constitution?’

Here, the question itself in effect advances an argument — that parliamentary sovereignty is the most important principle in the constitution — and invites you to say whether you agree with it or not. And in saying whether you agree, you need to advance your own argument: ‘I agree with this because…’. Or: ‘I disagree because…’. Or even (because if the question advances a position that you think implies a misconception, oversimplification or false premise, you can say so): ‘I will argue that the question oversimplifies matters by assuming that a particular constitutional principle can be singled out as uniquely important…’

Other questions may indicate in a less direct way the need for you to put forward your own argument. For example:

‘“Parliamentary sovereignty is the most important principle in the UK constitution.” Discuss.’

Here, we don’t have a ‘do you agree?’ prompt; instead, we have the apparently less directive ‘discuss’ prompt. If we read the question literally, it may seem that there is no need for you to put forward your own argument here. After all, it’s possible to ‘discuss’ something without advancing your own argument about it: you could make various points, explain various matters, and leave the reader to make up their own mind. But while this may be formally true, it’s unwise to read the question in this way, because it creates the risk that you will end up writing something very general and descriptive on the topic without going any further.

To summarise, then, there are at least three reasons for making an argument part of your essay. First, the question will often call for this, whether explicitly or implicitly, such that you wouldn’t be answering the question if you didn’t set out and develop an argument. Second, if you don’t impose on yourself the discipline of articulating and defending an argument, you risk underselling yourself by writing something that is descriptive and meandering rather than purposefully constructed . Third, setting out and developing an argument involves taking ownership of the material. By that, I mean using the material in a way that serves the purposes of your argument, showing that you are in command of it and that it is not in command of you. This, in turn, provides an opportunity to demonstrate a level of understanding that it would be hard to show in a descriptive essay that simply wandered from point to point.

Setting our your thesis

If putting forward an argument is (often) important or necessary, how should it be done? There are no great secrets here: the formula is straightforward. You should begin your essay by stating your thesis — that is, by setting out what it is that you are going to argue. This should be done in your introductory paragraph — by the time the reader reaches the end of that paragraph, they should be in no doubt about what you are going to argue. Imagine, for instance, that you are presented with the following essay title:

‘“The courts have expanded their powers of judicial review beyond all acceptable constitutional limits in recent decades; it is time to clip the judges’ wings.” Discuss.’  

In response to such a question, it might be tempting to say in your introduction that (for example) you are going to ‘show’ how the courts’ powers of judicial review have grown, ‘consider’ why this has happened and ‘examine’ the criticisms of judicial over-reach that have resulted. These are all perfectly sensible things to do when writing an essay on this topic, but if that is all you say in your introduction, you will leave the reader wondering what you think — and what you are going to argue . In contrast, an introductory paragraph that lays the foundation for essay that properly advances a thesis will set out what that thesis is. You might, for instance, take each of the propositions set out in the question and stake out your position:

‘In this essay, I will argue that (a) while the courts’ powers of judicial review have grown in recent decades, (b) it is misguided to suggest that this has breached “all acceptable constitutional limits” and (c) that those who now advocate “clip[ping] the judges’ wings” misunderstand the role of the judiciary in a rule of law-based constitution. In other words, the courts’ judicial review powers are entirely appropriate and those who seek to limit them risk undermining the rule of law.’  

An introduction of this nature would achieve two things. First, it would make clear to the reader the position you proposed to take. Second, it would immediately lend the essay a structure.

Developing your thesis

Once you have set out your thesis in the introduction, you need to develop or defend it. This will involve making a series of connected points in successive paragraphs, each of which relates to your overarching thesis. One way of thinking about this is that the individual points you make in the main body of the essay should all relate or point back in some way — and in a clear way — to the position that you staked out in the introduction.

In the example introduction above, the overarching thesis is set out in the second sentence; the individual and connecting parts of the argument are set out in propositions (a), (b) and (c) in the first sentence. One approach, therefore, would be to divide the answer, once the introduction has been written, into three parts, dealing in turn with points (a), (b) and (c). Naturally, as you work through the various parts of your argument, you will need to cite relevant evidence (cases, legislation, literature and so on) in support of your argument. You will also need to deal with matters that appear, at least at first glance, to sit in opposition to your argument (on which see further below) or which, once properly considered, require your argument to be refined.  

A key point, however you proceed, is that the reader should also be clear about how each successive point relates not only to the previous point but also to the overarching argument. The reader should never be left wondering ‘Where does this fit in?’ or ‘Why am I being told this?’ A simple way of avoiding these problems is to signpost , by saying at the beginning of each section how it relates to the overall argument. The flipside of this coin is that you should avoid saying things like ‘Another point is that…’ since this gives the impression, rightly or wrongly, that the various points in your essay have been thrown together in a random order, with little thought as to how they fit together or relate to your overall argument. Even if that’s not the case, you don’t want to risk giving the reader that impression.

A one-sided approach?

The advice set about above might seem to imply that I’m suggesting you write one-sided essays — in which you set out points that support your argument while ignoring those that don’t. However, that’s not at all what I’m suggesting. In order to set out your argument in a persuasive manner, you need to deal both with relevant points that support your argument and with relevant points that appear to challenge your argument — and, in dealing with the latter points, you need to show why they do not in fact fatally undermine your argument. In other words, the approach I’m suggesting here doesn’t mean that you should adopt a blinkered approach, paying no attention to counterarguments: rather, you need to deal with them in a way that shows that, having thought about and weighed them in the balance, you are in a position to show why your argument stands in spite of them (or why your argument can be adapted in a way that accommodates such points).  

All of this points towards a further matter: namely, that advancing an argument in your essay does not mean that you need to (or should) be argumentative in the sense of adopting a strident tone that brooks no debate or compromise. Rather, advancing an argument in the way I’ve suggested here means being thoughtful and persuasive : taking the reader with you on a journey that demonstrates that you have looked at the relevant material, carefully thought through the issues raised by the question, and arrived at a view that you are able to justify and defend through well-reasoned and suitably evidenced argument.

So what about your conclusion? If you’ve followed my advice above, it should more or less write itself. People often agonise over conclusions, perhaps thinking that there has to be some ‘big reveal’ at the end of their essay. But there doesn’t need to be — and indeed there shouldn’t be — any big reveal. There should be no surprises at the end precisely because you’ve set out your argument at the beginning and spent the rest of the essay carefully constructing the different strands of your argument. The conclusion is an opportunity to draw those stands together, but no-one should have to wait with bated breath for the conclusion before finally realising: ‘Ah, so that’s what they think!’ If that’s the impact of the conclusion on your reader, it means there’s something wrong with the introduction!

This post was first published on The Law Prof blog . It is re-published here with permission and thanks.

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How to Write a First-Class Law Essay

Studying law at university entails lots of essay writing. This article takes you through the key steps to writing a top law essay.

Writing a law essay can be a challenging task. As a law student, you’ll be expected to analyse complex legal issues and apply legal principles to real-world scenarios. At the same time, you’ll need to be able to communicate your ideas clearly and persuasively. In this article, we’ll cover some top tips to guide you through the process of planning, researching, structuring and writing a first-class law essay with confidence. 

1. Start In Advance

Give yourself plenty of time to plan, research and write your law essay. Always aim to start your law essay as soon as you have the question. Leaving it until the last minute does not only create unnecessary stress, but it also leaves you insufficient time to write, reference and perfect your work.

2. Understand The Question

Do not begin until you fully comprehend the question. Take the time to read the question carefully and make sure that you understand what it’s asking you to do. Highlight key terms and annotate the question with definitions of key concepts and any questions that you have have. Think about how the question links back to what you’ve learned during your lectures or through your readings.

3. Conduct Thorough Research

Conducting thorough research around your topic is one of the most fundamental parts of the essay writing process. You should aim to use a range of relevant sources, such as cases, academic articles, books and any other legal materials. Ensure that the information you collect is taken from relevant, reliable and up to date sources. Use primary over secondary material as much as possible.

Avoid using outdated laws and obscure blog posts as sources of information. Always aim to choose authoritative sources from experts within the field, such as academics, politicians, lawyers and judges. Using high-quality and authoritative sources and demonstrating profound and critical insight into your topic are what will earn you top marks.

4. Write A Detailed Plan

Once you’ve done your research, it’s time to plan your essay. When writing your plan, you’ll need to create an outline that clearly identifies the main points that you wish to make throughout your article. Try to write down what you wish to achieve in each paragraph, what concepts you want to discuss and arguments you want to make.

Your outline should be organised in a clear, coherent and logical manner to ensure that the person grading your essay can follow your line of thought and arguments easily.  You may also wish to include headings and subheadings to structure your essay effectively This makes it easier when it comes to writing the essay as starting without a plan can get messy. The essay must answer the question and nothing but the question so ensure all of your points relate to it.

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5. Write A Compelling Introduction

A great introduction should, firstly, outline the research topic.  The introduction is one of the most crucial parts of the law essay as it sets the tone for the rest of the paper. It should capture the readers attention and provide the background context on the topic. Most importantly, it should state the thesis of your essay.

When writing your introduction, avoid simply repeating the given question. Secondly, create a road map for the reader, letting them know how the essay will approach the question. Your introduction must be concise. The main body of the essay is where you will go into detail.

6. Include A Strong Thesis Statement

Your thesis should clearly set out the argument you are going to be making throughout your essay and should normally go in the introduction. Your thesis should adopt a clear stance rather than being overly general or wishy-washy. To obtain the best grades, you’ll need to show a unique perspective based upon a critical analysis of the topic rather than adopting the most obvious point of view.

Once you’ve conducted your research and had a chance to reflect on your topic, ask yourself whether you can prove your argument within the given word count or whether you would need to adopt a more modest position for your paper. Always have a clear idea of what your thesis statement is before you begin writing the content of your essay. 

7. Present the Counter-argument

To demonstrate your deeper understanding of the topic, it’s important to show your ability to consider the counter-arguments and address them in a careful and reasoned manner. When presenting your counterarguments, aim to depict them in the best possible light, aiming to be fair and reasonable before moving on to your rebuttal. To ensure that your essay is convincing, you will need to have a strong rebuttal that explains why your argument is stronger and more persuasive. This will demonstrate your capacity for critical analysis, showing the reader that you have carefully considered differing perspectives before coming to a well-supported conclusion.

8. End With A Strong Conclusion

Your conclusion is your opportunity to summarise the key points made throughout your essay and to restate the thesis statement in a clear and concise manner.  Avoid simply repeating what has already been mentioned in the body of the essay. For top grades, you should use the conclusion as an opportunity to provide critical reflection and analysis on the topic. You may also wish to share any further insights or recommendations into alternative avenues to consider or implications for further research that could add value to the topic. 

9. Review The Content Of Your Essay

Make sure you factor in time to edit the content of your essay.  Once you’ve finished your first draft, come back to it the next day. Re-read your essay with a critical perspective. Do your arguments make sense? Do your paragraphs flow in a logical manner? You may also consider asking someone to read your paper and give you critical feedback. They may be able to add another perspective you haven’t considered or suggest another research paper that could add value to your essay. 

10. Proofread For Grammatical Mistakes

Once you’re happy with the content of your essay, the last step is to thoroughly proofread your essay for any grammatical errors. Ensure that you take time to ensure that there are no grammar, spelling or punctuation errors as these can be one of the easiest ways to lose marks. You can ask anyone to proofread your paper, as they would not necessarily need to have a legal background – just strong grammar and spelling skills! 

11. Check Submission Guidelines

Before submitting, ensure that your paper conforms with the style, referencing and presentation guidelines set out by your university. This includes the correct font, font size and line spacing as well as elements such as page numbers, table of content etc. Referencing is also incredibly important as you’ll need to make sure that you are following the correct referencing system chosen by your university. Check your university’s guidelines about what the word count is and whether you need to include your student identification number in your essay as well. Be thorough and don’t lose marks for minor reasons!

12. Use Legal Terms Accurately

Always make sure that you are using legal terms accurately throughout your essay. Check an authoritative resource if you are unsure of any definitions. While being sophisticated is great, legal jargon if not used correctly or appropriately can weaken your essay. Aim to be concise and to stick to the point. Don’t use ten words when only two will do.

12. Create a Vocabulary Bank

One recurring piece of advice from seasoned law students is to take note of phrases from books and articles, key definitions or concepts and even quotes from your professors. When it comes to writing your law essay, you will have a whole range of ideas and vocabulary that will help you to develop your understanding and thoughts on a given topic. This will make writing your law essay even easier!

13. Finally, Take Care of Yourself

Last but certainly not least, looking after your health can improve your attitude towards writing your law essay your coursework in general. Sleep, eat, drink and exercise appropriately. Take regular breaks and try not to stress. Do not forget to enjoy writing the essay!

Words by Karen Fulton

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Beyond Intractability

The Hyper-Polarization Challenge to the Conflict Resolution Field We invite you to participate in an online exploration of what those with conflict and peacebuilding expertise can do to help defend liberal democracies and encourage them live up to their ideals.

Follow BI and the Hyper-Polarization Discussion on BI's New Substack Newsletter .

Hyper-Polarization, COVID, Racism, and the Constructive Conflict Initiative Read about (and contribute to) the  Constructive Conflict Initiative  and its associated Blog —our effort to assemble what we collectively know about how to move beyond our hyperpolarized politics and start solving society's problems. 

By Eric Brahm

September 2003  

International law has emerged from an effort to deal with conflict among states, since rules provide order and help to mitigate destructive conflict. It is developed in a number of ways. First, law often comes out of international agreements and treaties between states. Treaties are the most important source of international law and also serve as the origins of IGOs, which in turn are important sources of law. Second, customary practices that have evolved over time often become codified in law. Third, general legal principles that are common to a significant number of states can become part of the corpus of international law. Finally, law arises from the community of international legal scholars. Particularly on more technical issues, their expertise is often accepted by political leaders.

The existence of law, however, does not mean that conflict is any easier to resolve.[1] Instead, as law becomes more elaborate and constraining, it becomes increasingly contentious. The powerful do not wish to be constrained in their ability to respond to threats. At the same time, developing countries see much of international law as being crafted largely without their input, primarily due to the so-called democratic deficit in intergovernmental organizations ( IGOs ), which now are typically the negotiating venues for the creation of new law.

In this essay, we discuss the origins of international law, and analyze how international law has evolved in the twentieth century, focusing on the individualization of international law. Finally, we examine some of the contemporary criticisms of international law.

Is International Law Real Law?

Perhaps the first question to ask is whether in fact international law is law at all. The primary distinction between domestic and international law is that the latter often lacks an enforcement mechanism. There is no government to enforce the law, as there is in domestic situations. International law is often as much a source of conflict as it is a solution to them. Most forms of international law are contested. Rarely is it agreed upon universally. As will be seen below, it is not enforceable unless powerful countries see it in their interest to do so. What is more, cross-cultural differences make its interpretation and implementation difficult. Another question is whether international laws can be considered law if they are not translated into domestic laws where there is greater potential for enforcement. By adapting international law into domestic statutes, governments theoretically provide enforcement mechanisms . There are also instances in which domestic law not only does not contain international law, but is in fact in contradiction to it.

Despite all of this, international law is often followed. This can be attributed in part to Great Power backing, but also much of international law is based on customary practice. International law may be enforced by states taking unilateral action if it is in their interest or through multilateral measures where sufficient consensus exists. Reciprocity can play a role, as benefits in other areas may be gained from following laws. In addition to ad hoc efforts to enforce international laws, a number of formal courts have been established for that purpose.

International Courts

Historical origins.

It can be argued that international law began in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, which asserted the sovereign equality of states. Rules concerning the conduct of war ( jus ad bellum and jus in bello ) soon emerged, most famously codified in the Geneva Conventions of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Organizations soon emerged to facilitate the creation of law and to mediate disputes. The League of Nations sought unsuccessfully to effectively outlaw war. Recently, the clearest source of international law has been the United Nations. The U.N. Charter defines the conditions for the legal use of force, and the U.N. has served as the principal negotiating venue for the creation of new international law. The most recent development has been international law targeting individuals rather than states, as is evidenced by the creation of the International Criminal Court. These issues will be taken up after a review of state-oriented courts.

The International Court of Justice

States have created an evolving collection of international institutions to facilitate the creation and maintenance of international law. The Hague Conference of 1899 established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which was an institution to which states could come for dispute settlement. It was a forerunner to the Permanent Court of International Justice, created in the aftermath of World War I in 1921. It derived largely from the Treaty of Versailles, and laid the groundwork for the protection of minority rights . The Permanent Court of International Justice was reconstituted in 1946 as the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which is still in existence.

The ICJ was created as a judicial body to hear cases involving disputes between nation-states. It is made up of 15 judges, elected for nine-year terms. The judges are elected by the U.N. General Assembly and Security Council, based on nominations made to the Secretary-General. In order for the ICJ to hear a case, all state parties to the dispute must accept its jurisdiction. The ICJ remained marginal until the 1980s as the Soviet bloc rejected it, and Third World states soured on the idea after some early unfavorable rulings. After the ICJ ruled against the U.S. in the case brought by Nicaragua regarding the mining of Nicaraguan waters, however, it gained renewed credibility, the number of states recognizing its jurisdiction jumped dramatically, and its docket was flooded with cases.[2]

European Courts

Europe has seen the most dramatic development of supranational courts. The European Court of Justice is the sole judicial organ for the European Union. It is independent in its decision-making, and its purpose is to ensure that European law is followed. The court's independence is enhanced by the fact that only one judgment of the court is released, not individual positions. The Court is generally regarded as one of the most "European-minded" institutions in the E.U., in other words acting on the principles articulated for the E.U., rather than on state interests.[3] The European Court of Human Rights has been the most active of any international human rights court, with individuals utilizing it more to assert rights than in the resolution of interstate disputes.

The Inter-American Court of Human Rights

The Americas have also developed a significant regional court system. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights was established in the 1970s and has acted primarily as an advisory body; it has never heard a case. At times, it has been criticized as a tool for the United States to wield influence over its neighbors. However, it has also proven to be an important moral voice in the region, particularly as Latin American states have struggled with political transitions.

International Law and Conflict Management

States have long relied on treaties and other international agreements for security against war. The first important move beyond laws of war was the Kellogg-Briand Pact, signed by 63 countries in 1928, which condemned "recourse to war for the solution of international controversies" and foreswore war as an instrument of policy. However, the conflicts of the 1930s made this agreement moot.

Many of the core principles of international law related to conflict prevention have been incorporated into the U.N. Charter. They are:

• the prohibition of the use of force unless in self-defense [Article 2(4)];
• the primacy of national sovereignty [Article 2(7)], and
• the advancement of human rights [Universal Declaration of Human Rights].

These principles often prove to be in tension with one another, however. This confusion was exacerbated by subsequent treaties, such as the 1948 convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. In practice, the protection of human rights has placed limitations on respecting state sovereignty, and force has been deemed the only effective means to protect human rights on a number of occasions.

One of the clearest appeals to international law emerged with respect to Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait. The Iraqi invasion was a clear violation of Kuwaiti sovereignty, and the ensuing Gulf War was a multilateral effort to enforce international law. The growing role of international law can be seen in the creation of the "no-fly zones" in Iraq via U.N. Security Council Resolution 688 of April 1991, which served as the legal precedent for a range of initiatives later in the decade, from Somalia to East Timor.

Initially, these actions were rationalized by arguing that internal conflict had effects that spilled across borders, but human rights discourse increasingly replaced this argument.[4] These principles of state sovereignty and human rights came into clear conflict in the war in the Balkans. Yugoslavia responded in part to Western threats by making appeals to international law. Yugoslavia sued the NATO countries in the International Court of Justice for aggression and genocide. The Court rejected the argument, but the legality of the Kosovo bombing remains uncertain.[5]

The question of terrorism has also become a difficult one for states to deal with using international law, particularly as targets become increasingly international. Some steps have been taken to address these issues. A number of conventions have been created to deal with issues ranging from aircraft hijacking to hostage-taking and abductions, but all suffer from lack of enforcement. Part of the difficulty in dealing with terrorism is a general lack of consensus over what groups and tactics would fall under such law. The law, however, still largely reflects an overly state-centric view that makes it difficult to deal with the growth of transnational groups. Taking action against groups often requires infringing on sovereignty, another core principle of international law.

Individualization of International Law

One of the most dramatic developments in international law has been the growth of laws focusing on the individual, which provide protection and require accountability. Whereas in the past, international law focused primarily on regulating state behavior and defining states rights, it has increasingly been involved in identifying individual rights and holding individuals accountable. This trend began after WWII. The identification of individual responsibility in the Nuremberg Trials after World War II was followed by the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations. The Declaration passed largely because the Communist Bloc was abstaining at the time. In the years that have followed, there has been a proliferation of international covenants that have specified additional rights. The Yugoslav and Rwandan war crimes tribunals established by the U.N. in the 1990s, the International Criminal Court (ICC), and international covenants specifying additional rights, represent further developments.

Of the two war crimes tribunals, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has received the most attention. The ICTY initially suffered because it pursued only low-level criminals, assuming that peace negotiations required the participation of high-level leaders. Yet in mid-1995 Prosecutor Richard Goldstone indicted Bosnian Serb leaders Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic. The peace talks continued, and the former leaders became increasingly marginalized,[6] although they remain at large. States have often been reluctant to aggressively go after war criminals if their soldiers would be placed in harm's way.[7] The ICTY became more aggressive when it indicted Slobodan Milosevic, a sitting head of state, in May 1999 for crimes against humanity.

The International Criminal Court (ICC)

The events of the 1990s, and the perceived strengths and weaknesses of the ICTY, did much to draw renewed attention to the idea of a global criminal court. The forerunner of the ICC was modeled on programs such as the United Nations War Crimes Commission, which was established by the Allies in 1943. In the post-war years, the idea of a permanent court was much talked about, but was overshadowed by the Cold War and reemerged only in 1989 initially as a means to deal with the international drug trade. Both the ICTY and ICTR (International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda) pointed to the need for a permanent body that would be a stronger deterrent and also could be more efficient, since the cost of a standing body could be less than the start-up costs of ad hoc bodies.

In late 1995, the U.N. General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (PrepCom), which held a series of sessions over the next three years. Intense diplomatic activity ensued, culminating in a June-July 1998 diplomatic conference that resulted in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Jurisdiction over genocide , crimes against humanity, war crimes, and aggression was granted the ICC, although the latter crime awaits further diplomatic clarification. The statute entered into force in 2002 after the ratification by the requisite 60 countries. In early 2003, the judges and the Prosecutor were elected. Judges must be nationals of one of the State Parties (states that signed and ratified the agreement) and possess legal expertise. The judiciary must be balanced in a number of respects, representing: the major legal systems of the world; geographic areas; gender; and expertise on specific issues. The 18 judges are elected by the Assembly of States Parties and serve a single nine-year term. The Prosecutor and Deputy Prosecutor(s) are elected by an absolute majority of the Assembly of States Parties for a single nine-year term. Procedures have also been established for the early removal of judges and prosecutors, to ensure accountability.

Bringing a case before the ICC is a relatively long process. For the ICC to act, jurisdiction must be accepted by either the state where the crime was committed, or the state from which the accused came. If ICC jurisdiction exists, investigations may be initiated in a number of ways. A state-party can bring a case. The U.N. Security Council also can, even in circumstances where the jurisdiction outlined above does not exist. In addition, the Prosecutor may also initiate the process him or herself, although the Pre-Trial Chamber must approve of any investigation initiated by the Prosecutor by finding that there is a reasonable basis to proceed and that the case falls within ICC jurisdiction.

What is more, the ICC is meant to be complementary to national courts. Therefore, the ICC will not proceed if a State is or has been investigating the crime, unless the State is seen to be unwilling or unable to proceed. The ICC Prosecutor must notify all states that it is initiating an investigation, and states are able to assert a superior right to exercise jurisdiction. The U.N. Security Council can block proceedings through a positive resolution, but this prohibition lasts for only one year. Once a case has been initiated, the Prosecutor evaluates whether to proceed with the investigation. It is the job of the Pre-Trial Chamber to determine whether to issue warrants and orders requested by the Prosecutor. If the warrant is issued, after the accused has been informed of the charges against him or her, the Pre-Trial Chamber determines whether to confirm the charges. The trial would proceed from there.

The strength of the ICC remains to be proven, particularly since the U.S. does not support the court. The U.S. is concerned that its troops on peacekeeping missions would be subject to prosecution that might be politically motivated. The U.S. would also like the Prosecutor to have less independent authority, and more control exercised by the Security Council, where the U.S. has veto power. Other countries may have similar misgivings, but may lack the international influence to take a decisive stand. They may fear the potential embarrassment of having their human rights records put on trial. Leaders who have violated the human rights of their citizens or others may fear prosecution. The U.S. case remains somewhat unique since it has the largest military in the world and tends to be involved in more places more frequently. It also reflects a concern for entangling international obligations that has been an undercurrent of U.S. foreign policy for much of its history. In essence, the U.S. is reluctant to give up the ability to act in its self-interest that its power provides.

Critiques of International Law

Although much of this discussion has portrayed international law as a potential means of conflict management or resolution, it should be remembered that law is itself a source of significant conflict. The shape and content of law often favors particular groups or countries. Not only is international law often most influential when it favors the strongest, but the powerful are also typically the source of law. For example, because much of international law is formed by the U.N., the Security Council has a disproportionate influence in shaping it.

One prominent example of might makes right in international law is in the realm of laws related to trade and investment. Enforcement comes largely through power, which means that the developed world often controls the agenda. They have the market power to punish and entice smaller states to comply. The creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 marked a dramatic advancement in the development of trade law and enforcement mechanisms over what existed under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO has been widely criticized for "green room"[8] agenda-setting by the global North, and other actions that put the South at a disadvantage.[9] New laws also create significant administrative burden for poor states, which is perhaps not bad for the long run, but makes for costly compliance.[10]

At base, though, law is only as effective as the means of enforcement and developing countries lack the power to retaliate effectively. Trade law is branching out into new areas as well, which will potentially put the South at an even greater disadvantage. Efforts are in various stages to link trade law to a range of issues from intellectual property regulations (TRIPs) to the environment to labor standards. TRIPs appear to favor Northern multinational corporations, while not protecting indigenous knowledge.[11] It also promises to make the cost of drugs to fight deadly illnesses such as AIDS a severe burden for poor countries. In terms of environmental law, it is often seen by the South as cutting off the path to development that the North took long ago, leaving the South in permanent dependency.

At the same time, the WTO's Dispute Settlement Understanding does take many steps to help developing countries operate on equal footing, compared to the GATT.[12] Each case must have a representative from the South as one of the three hearing the case. Voting is more explicit than under the GATT. Provisions have also been made to provide expertise to delegations from the South, but they are still left unable to shape the agenda. In sum, the WTO Dispute Settlement System does provide better opportunity for developing countries to bring complaints, but they often lack the technical expertise to take advantage of it.

International law has also been criticized as fundamentally Western. Certainly, most international law is based on Western notions. One sign of this might be that the Western Countries are more compliant with the international laws on human rights.[13] Others argue, however, that the widespread acceptance of international law is evidence that the principles on which it is based are not strictly Western. Still, it is not clear that many developing countries are entirely free to accede to these rules, as the WTO example above suggests. Western countries are able to provide incentives for less powerful countries to accede to their wishes. Either way, however, it means that international law has at least some force behind it, though not nearly as much as domestic legal systems.

[1] William A. Schabas, "International Law and Response to Conflict," in Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict , eds. Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 603-618. < http://www.amazon.com/Turbulent-Peace-Challenges-Managing-International/dp/1929223277 >.

[3] Trevor C. Hartley, The Foundations of European Community Law, Third Edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). Access revised edition (2010) here.

[4] Schabas 2001.

[5] Ibid, 607.

[7] Gary Jonathan Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance : The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000). < http://books.google.com/books?id=M3XeD1OvxRYC >.

[8] So called green room deals refer to pre-negotiation meetings of representatives of developed countries in which they agree to a position for negotiations involving the broader international community. Given their power and influence, they are then able to present a unified front in negotiations with developing countries and therefore shape the debate such to favor their interests.

[9] Sarah Anderson, ed., Views from the South: The Effects of Globalization and the WTO on Third World Countries (Chicago: Food First Books, 2000) < http://books.google.com/books?id=fai2AAAAIAAJ >.; Walden Bello, "Reforming the WTO is the Wrong Agenda," in Globalize This!: The Battle Against the World Trade Organization and Corporate Rule, eds. Kevin Danaher and Roger Burback (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 2000) 103-119. < http://books.google.com/books?id=3lRjQgAACAAJ >.

[10] Magda Shahin, From Marrakesh to Singapore: The WTO and Developing Countries. Penang, Malaysia: Third World Network. < http://books.google.com/books?id=CdC2AAAAIAAJ >.

[11]Anderson 2000.

[12] Kofi Oteng Kufuor, "From the GATT to the WTO -- The Developing Countries and the Reform of the Procedures for the Settlement of International Trade Disputes," Journal of World Trade 31, no. 5 (October 1997): 117-147.

[13] Louis Henkin, The Age of Rights (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990). < http://books.google.com/books?id=jxYCBOV1IwwC >.

Use the following to cite this article: Brahm, Eric. "International Law." Beyond Intractability . Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2003 < http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/international-law >.

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Basic Rules

Academic and professional legal writing requires you to develop an argument and demonstrate relationships between the ideas you are expressing. 

Therefore, the ability to express yourself clearly and accurately is important.  Here you will find information to help you improve your writing for any purpose in your law degree.

Academic writing in law is:

Academic writing in law does not:   

Steps to Writing a Law Essay

Throughout your law degree, you will be expected to write a range of different texts, including research essays, responses to problem questions, and case notes.

Not matter the type of text you are asked to produce for an assignment, make sure you follow these steps:

• Plan :  read the questions carefully and think about how you will answer it
• Research :  read, read and read! Make use of everything available to you - don't forget the library!
• Make thorough notes : include all important (and relevant) details and quotes and take note of the source. Make sure you organise your notes so as to make the writing task easier
• Write the first draft :  before you start writing your first draft, refer back to your initial plan and make any necessary changes now you have done your research and gathered your notes. 
• Review and edit :  remember to proofread your work!

The IRAC Method

IRAC is an acronym that stands for: Issue, Rule, Application, and Conclusion. It functions as a methodology for legal analysis and is used as a framework for organising your answer to an essay question in law school.

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In legal writing, issues are the core of the essay.

This part of the essay should:

• Identify and state the issue
• Name those involved (plaintiff and defendant) and briefly describe their individual issues
• Work out what body of law may govern the resolution of the issue (e.g. Contract Law)

The rule describes which law applies to the issue. The rule should be stated as a general principle, and not a conclusion to the particular case being briefed.

• Outline the legal principles that will be used to address to the issue
• Source legal principles from cases and legislation

The application is the most important and longest part of your answer. It involves applying the Rule to the facts of the issue and demonstrating how those facts do or do not meet the requirements laid down by the rules. Discuss both sides of the case when possible.

• Explain why the plaintiff's claims are or are not justified
• Identify how the law will be used by the plaintiff and defendant to argue their case
• Use relevant cases and legal principles to support your writing
• Do not try to strengthen your argument by leaving out elements or facts that will hurt it

As with all essays, the conclusion is a statement that identifies your answer to the issue.

• Identify what the result of your argument ir, or what it should be
• State who is liable for what and to what extent
• Consider how the plaintiff and defendant could have acted to avoid this legal issue

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• UWA IRAC Guide This guide from the University of Western Australia offers examples of how the IRAC method can be applied to different cases.
• Law School Survival: The IRAC Method A useful site that presents a detailed outline of the IRAC method as well as skeleton outlines.

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How to write a Law Essay

Info: 1100 words (4 pages) Study Guide Published: 13th May 2020

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The writing of law essays is challenging and can be tricky as it is different from the writing of other types of essays. In order to have a good piece of legal writing, the writer should obviously have a legal background and have the ability to demonstrate legal analysis. At the same time, the writer should ensure that he is clear, coherent, concise, and answers the question using plain English.

1. Analyse the Question

The starting point in writing a law is essay is to analyse the question and understand clearly what the question is all about. Ideally, one should start by identifying the area or topic of law. Once the topic is identified, the writer should analyse the question in light of the area of the law and understand what is it that should be discussed in the body of the essay so as to answer the question. In order to ensure that he is relevant throughout, the writer may want to draw up a quick plan consisting of bullet points of the different elements of his answer which he will elaborate on throughout the essay. The idea of having a plan is for the writer to mind map his thoughts. With the plan in mind, he could set off writing the essay, which normally would consist of an introduction, the body, and a conclusion.

2. Write an Introduction

The introduction to the essay is very important as it is meant to provide the reader of the essay with a taste of the writer’s answer. In his introduction, it will be helpful for the writer to give the reader a flavour of what his answer will be like. Hence, the writing of the introduction should be more generalised rather than being specific. The aim is to show the reader that the writer has correctly identified the question, the area of the law, and how he proposes to provide an answer. An introduction should not be too lengthy.

3. Create the Body of the Essay

The body of the essay will be the heart of the essay. The writer should ensure that the body deals with all the elements that will answer the question. He should write in an orderly fashion so that the reader can understand the flow in the arguments. If the writer’s body will consist of a number of points in law, it will be a good strategy that he writes a paragraph on each point in law. This will enable the reader to follow the arguments and the essay will look neater. The writer may also divide the body of his essay in different sub-headings if necessary.

The writer should bear in mind that the body of his essay adequately deals with all the elements of the answer. The writer should back up all of his arguments in the essay with a proposition of law where applicable. For instance, if the writer is making a point relying on a piece of legislation, he should refer to the Act of Parliament in issue. As an example, if the point that the writer is making is that goods sold should be of satisfactory quality when sold in the course of business, he should refer to Section 14(2) Sale of Goods Act 1979. On the other hand, if the writer is relying on a judgment or the ratio of a case, he should refer to the case with full citation. If the facts of the case law are important in making his point, the writer may even briefly write about the facts of the case. But he should bear in mind that the ratio of the case, that is the legal reasoning behind the judgment, and the judgments provided by the judges are the most important.

It is fundamental for the writer to be consistent throughout the essay and to be relevant at all times. The different paragraphs making up his body should precisely answer the question. The essay should also be grammatically correct. As regards a law essay, it is extremely important for the writer to use correct vocabulary and make use of plain English which is not informal. This means that the writer should not be informal or use words which are more used in Spoken English such as “don’t or can’t”. The writer should adopt a legal analysis throughout which means that the different points that he is making is being made having due regard to the law as a matter of fact. He should avoid giving his personal opinions as to the law. Of course, on certain points of law, he may cite the names of well-known academics such as Benjamin on Sale of Goods; Chitty on Contract; or Todd on International Trade Law and briefly give the views of those academics.

4. Check Legal Analysis

In order for his essay to amount to a good piece of work, the writer should, above all, ensure that his legal analysis is correct and that he got the law right. Before one embarks on writing, he should either be familiar to the area of the law or he must research the area or topic adequately. The essay will only obtain good marks if the substance of the academic writing is legally correct.

5. Check for Plagiarism

The writer should never plagiarise or else he may be heavily penalised. Afterall, law tutors and academics correcting a paper are well acquainted and familiar to academic books and may easily detect plagiarism. Where the writer is referring to a quotation or to the works of an academic, he should give full reference to the source of the reference in a footnote.

6. Create a Conclusion

Finally, the last section of a law essay should be a conclusion. If the introduction and the body of the essay are correct with the requisite legal analysis and having answered the question, a proper conclusion may only be the “cherry on the cake”. As such, in a conclusion, the author would wrap up the points that he has made in the body and put a generalised answer to the question. It is worth noting that the writer should not introduce any new information in a conclusion but it should rather be a summarising and a re-packaging exercise.

Bearing the above points in mind, the writer of a law essay may embark on an exercise where he may efficiently provide his legal analysis to the substance of the question. In doing so, his aim will be to illuminate the reader on the subject matter and be informative whilst at the same time being relevant.

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How to Write Law Essay Questions

How to write a legal essay question.

A law essay question requires you to make an argument about some aspect of the law. For example, it might ask whether Bloggs vs Smith was correctly decided, how would you reform the law of murder, and so on. This guide provides tips and tricks for improving your legal essay writing skills.

What is the Question Actually Asking You?

The number one rule of answering any law essay question is RTFQ – ATFQ . 

Read the flaming question, answer the flaming question . 

Here is a common complaint by law examiners every year. Many students read the question once, see its on a particular topic, and regurgitate everything they know about that topic. As a result, the student fails to actually provide any kind of answer to what was asked.

If a question asks you to discuss the abolition of life sentences, don’t explain everything you know about murder. Your essay should provide an actual answer: yes, they should be abolished; no they shouldn’t be abolished; or no they shouldn’t be abolished but they should be reformed.  Every piece of information and every line of argument you write should relate to your answer .

Analysing the Question for Greater Depth

Take some time to  analyse the language of the question . You should be asking yourself the following questions:

Are there any  underlying assumptions  the question makes? Should those assumptions be taken for granted, or can you challenge them ? How might this affect your answer to the question?

Are there any  terms in the question that need to be defined , and is there any controversy over the definition of the word or phrase? How might this affect your answer to the question?

Take the following exam essay question taken from an International Law paper. You don’t need to know anything about International law, we are just going to look at the question’s structure and language.

‘The concept of persistent objector is contrary to the entire idea of a general international law common to all states.’ (DUMBERRY referring to CONFORTI) How real is the threat of the persistent objector to general international law? [ Cambridge University, Tripos Part IB Exam Paper May 2012 ]

The quote here raises an immediate issue. What actually is the ‘entire idea of a general international law common to all states’? Unless you establish what the purpose of general international law is, how it is achieved and how it operates, it is impossible to say whether something is a threat to it.

A good answer to this question would explain this. It would then outline the different views on the concept of international law, and argue that one particular view is the best. Only then would the student discuss whether the law relating to persistent objectors is a threat to general international law.

Formulate a Balanced Argument

An essay question requires a balanced analysis of all sides of any academic debate. Do not give an entirely one-sided answer. However, do not do the opposite of this either. A completely neutral, non-committal essay is equally shallow: don’t conclude that both sides have good points without saying one is better.  You need to have an argument .

Start the essay knowing what your argument will be. Work out how you are going to show that you have the correct way of looking at things. Always discuss criticisms that could be made of your points and how you would deal with them. If the other side have strong rebuttals, don’t ignore them: address them and explain why you don’t find them convincing.

The argument should flow and different elements of your argument should be dealt with in different sections. If it helps, use headings to make sure you stick to the point and don’t go off on irrelevant tangents. Every paragraph should start with a statement of what you will argue, and end with you having successfully argued it. If something is not relevant to the flow of your argument, do not put it in.

High-Level Answers and Abstract Thought

Law examiners love an argument where all the sections link together, playing off elements of previous sections and flowing naturally. There is a straightforward way of achieving this. Come up with some underlying, philosophical or policy-based thesis this area of law is based on . Then, think about how you can tie your argument into that.

For example, say you are asked to discuss whether sado-masochism should be an exception to the rule against consenting to ABH . A good answer will first consider: what is the point of criminalising behaviour that only really harms yourself? Is it paternalism? If so, does the law generally take a paternalist approach? Or does it instead generally protect an individual’s liberty to harm themselves as they please? How do the other exceptions to the rule fit into a paternalist or a liberty-based concept of the law?

You might conclude that the law does not follow a coherent principle. If so, you likely need to argue that it needs reform. Or, you might conclude that the law does follow a coherent principle. You might argue that this is a good principle to follow, in which case the law should stay as it is. Alternatively, you could argue that the law should not be based on this principle: it should be based on another. With this done you can answer the question. Sado-masochism should be an exception if it fits the philosophical/policy-based principles that you claim should underpin the criminal law.

This type of thinking helps essay flow. You are linking every stage of your argument to a broader argument about abstract principles. It also means you are evaluating the law deeply, which can greatly enhance your marks.

Using Secondary Commentary

Evidence of wider reading, normally academic articles or specialist books, is necessary for top grades when you are writing a law essay. However, it is important to fully understand the arguments being made, and how they relate to other ideas. You will not get any extra marks for merely saying ‘X argues that Y is true’. You need to be able to explain why X makes this argument and how it might be criticised. Examiners are able to see through this kind of shallow ‘name dropping’.

Once you’ve read an academic article, sit back for a while. Think about how they relate to your own views. Academic arguments should  support  your views, not be a wholesale replacement of them. Don’t do an essay on what X thinks about a subject, do an essay on what  you  think about it. Inform your view with the academic’s analysis, supporting arguments and potential criticisms of your position.

Don’t Hedge Your Bets (and Other Stylistic Tips)

If there’s one thing most law professors hate, its reading a phrase like ‘it seems from the evidence that there might be a possibility of supporting the argument that…’.

Confidence in essay-writing is not something that is stressed enough at school or university. People who aren’t confident are tempted to hedge their bets with language like ‘probably’ and ‘it might be the case’. Resist that urge. If your analysis is correct, the person marking the essay may have doubts as to how firmly you grasp the material if you do not sound confident in your conclusions. If your analysis is not correct, saying ‘probably’ in front of the error won’t help in any case.

Other stylistic tips for writing a professional sounding essay include:

• Avoid contractions (‘don’t’, ‘can’t’), slang phrases and other informal language;
• Avoid the phrase ‘it is submitted that’. This kind of wording is for moots and legal debating, not academic legal essays;
• Try to deal with only one issue per paragraph. This makes the essay less visually intimidating;
• If simple language and short sentences get your point across, use simple language and short sentences. There is a temptation to sound ‘professional’ by using multi-clauses sentences and complex vocabulary. This just makes the essay harder to read.

Cite, Cite and Cite Again

If you are ever making a positive claim about the law, back it up with a citation. What proves your claim? A case? A statutory provision? Cite it. You must assure the marker that you aren’t just making lucky guesses. Many institutions’ grading criteria specify that you can’t achieve anything above a 2:2 with insufficient citation.

Generally there is no need to give the year, report and page number of case-law in exams. However, you should check your university’s best practice guidelines to know for sure.

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Essays on International Law

• Description

This book contains ten writings on different aspects of international law, each of them cross-referenced, in instances in which information in one is relevant to points made in another. The first essay considers the character of the subject, and its relation to other entities of relevance to it, such as its compatibility with national law and its relation to maritime law. The second one considers different types of legal instruments in settings of international law, and explains how to read a multilateral convention, using the Convention for the International Sale of Goods as an example. The third part discusses the characteristics of a state and the concept of recognition, the fourth reviews the various roles that institutions take in international law, concentrating in particular on major regional organisations, and the fifth explores the extent to which the World Trade Organisation and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade provide for developing countries.

Essay Six summarises the framework for international labour law and investigates its contents and workings, then the seventh considers which countries predominate in the running of international institutions. The eighth paper explores how regional entities might co-operate with international institutions in the harmonisation of the law, and the ninth one investigates the place of negotiation as a method of international dispute resolution. Finally, the tenth essay considers the past, present and future of international law, and reviews especially the role of language.

Graeme Baber is an independent legal researcher, specializing in international, European and United Kingdom financial law. He has published more than 30 articles, comments, briefings and updates across these areas, and his previous books with Cambridge Scholars Publishing include The Impact of Legislation and Regulation on the Freedom of Movement of Capital in Estonia, Poland and Latvia and The Free Movement of Capital and Financial Services: An Exposition? His most recent book is a treatise entitled The European Union and the Global Financial Crisis: A View from 2016 (Nova Science Publishers). Graeme is an experienced teacher of university students, lecturing on both financial law and international law.

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White & Case Veteran Antitrust Partner Assimakis Komninos on DMA Lawsuits, Foreign Accents, 'Robot' Lawyers and Writing 'Like Hell'

Komninos, who has been with White & Case for 20 years, is an outspoken, respected and seasoned litigator who has appeared before the Grand Chamber of the Court of Justice of the European Union four times.

August 11, 2024 at 03:01 PM

7 minute read

Linda A. Thompson

Brussels Correspondent

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Assimakis Komninos regularly advises clients on competition matters, but the longtime White & Case partner is also a seasoned litigator, having appeared before the Grand Chamber of the EU’s top court four times. In an interview with Law.com International, the well-respected Brussels-based partner reflects on why U.K. barristers would do well to read the courtroom post-Brexit, discusses an upcoming wave of private enforcement litigation around the Digital Markets Act, and explains the appeal of posting on LinkedIn.

This interview has been edited for length and clarity.

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Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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