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Articles on World Health Organization (WHO)

Displaying 1 - 20 of 423 articles.

The WHO has declared Mpox a ‘public health emergency of international concern.’ Is it time to worry?

Kiffer George Card , Simon Fraser University

WHO has declared mpox a global health emergency. What happens next?

C Raina MacIntyre , UNSW Sydney

Mpox cases are soaring in Africa – what must be done to prevent a global pandemic

Cheryl Walter , University of Hull

You don’t need a doctor to get more physically active – here are 10 simple steps you can take by yourself

Nerys M. Astbury , University of Oxford

Gazans’ extreme hunger could leave its mark on subsequent generations

Hasan Khatib , University of Wisconsin-Madison

Global pandemic treaty will help fight future threats: top negotiator on how talks are going

Precious Matsoso , University of the Witwatersrand

What is cervical cancer and how can it be prevented? Answers to key questions

Abba Mallum , University of KwaZulu-Natal ; Beatrice M’mboga Akala , University of the Witwatersrand ; Maureen Bilinga Tendwa , Rhodes University ; Rakiya Saidu , University of Cape Town ; Stephen Avery , University of Pennsylvania ; Twalib Ngoma , Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences , and Wil Ngwa , Johns Hopkins University

Gaza war: with both sides playing politics, don’t expect a ceasefire any time soon

Paul Rogers , University of Bradford

Are presidents good role models for vaccination uptake? DRC study shows only if they’re trusted, and people get to know about it

Nik Stoop , University of Antwerp ; Elie Lunanga , University of Antwerp ; Lara Collart , University of Antwerp , and Marijke Verpoorten , University of Antwerp

Historic amendments to the WHO’s International Health Regulations create a path towards an equitable pandemic treaty

Roojin Habibi , L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa

Smoking in Africa: study of 16 countries shows higher taxes would help young smokers quit or cut down

Sam Filby , University of Cape Town and Corne van Walbeek , University of Cape Town

154 million lives saved in 50 years: 5 charts on the global success of vaccines

Meru Sheel , University of Sydney and Alexandra Hogan , UNSW Sydney

I’ve spent decades overseeing relief operations around the world, and here’s what’s going wrong in Gaza

Raymond Offenheiser , University of Notre Dame

Lessons from COVID-19 : Preparing for future pandemics means looking beyond the health data

Christopher Bruce , University of Calgary

What is pathological demand avoidance – and how is it different to ‘acting out’?

Nicole Rinehart , Monash University ; David Moseley , Monash University , and Michael Gordon , Monash University

Nigeria is pioneering a new vaccine to fight meningitis - why this matters

Idris Mohammed , Gombe State University

Parrot fever cases amid a ‘mysterious’ pneumonia outbreak in Argentina – what you need to know about psittacosis

Michael Head , University of Southampton

When can my baby drink cow’s milk? It’s sooner than you think

Karleen Gribble , Western Sydney University ; Naomi Hull , University of Sydney , and Nina Jane Chad , University of Sydney

Noma is a truly devastating tropical disease – more people need to know about it

Stuart Ainsworth , University of Liverpool

The Gambia may allow female genital mutilation again – another sign of a global trend eroding women’s rights

Satang Nabaneh , University of Dayton

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Article Contents

Primacy of the research question, structure of the paper, writing a research article: advice to beginners.

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Thomas V. Perneger, Patricia M. Hudelson, Writing a research article: advice to beginners, International Journal for Quality in Health Care , Volume 16, Issue 3, June 2004, Pages 191–192, https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzh053

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Writing research papers does not come naturally to most of us. The typical research paper is a highly codified rhetorical form [ 1 , 2 ]. Knowledge of the rules—some explicit, others implied—goes a long way toward writing a paper that will get accepted in a peer-reviewed journal.

A good research paper addresses a specific research question. The research question—or study objective or main research hypothesis—is the central organizing principle of the paper. Whatever relates to the research question belongs in the paper; the rest doesn’t. This is perhaps obvious when the paper reports on a well planned research project. However, in applied domains such as quality improvement, some papers are written based on projects that were undertaken for operational reasons, and not with the primary aim of producing new knowledge. In such cases, authors should define the main research question a posteriori and design the paper around it.

Generally, only one main research question should be addressed in a paper (secondary but related questions are allowed). If a project allows you to explore several distinct research questions, write several papers. For instance, if you measured the impact of obtaining written consent on patient satisfaction at a specialized clinic using a newly developed questionnaire, you may want to write one paper on the questionnaire development and validation, and another on the impact of the intervention. The idea is not to split results into ‘least publishable units’, a practice that is rightly decried, but rather into ‘optimally publishable units’.

What is a good research question? The key attributes are: (i) specificity; (ii) originality or novelty; and (iii) general relevance to a broad scientific community. The research question should be precise and not merely identify a general area of inquiry. It can often (but not always) be expressed in terms of a possible association between X and Y in a population Z, for example ‘we examined whether providing patients about to be discharged from the hospital with written information about their medications would improve their compliance with the treatment 1 month later’. A study does not necessarily have to break completely new ground, but it should extend previous knowledge in a useful way, or alternatively refute existing knowledge. Finally, the question should be of interest to others who work in the same scientific area. The latter requirement is more challenging for those who work in applied science than for basic scientists. While it may safely be assumed that the human genome is the same worldwide, whether the results of a local quality improvement project have wider relevance requires careful consideration and argument.

Once the research question is clearly defined, writing the paper becomes considerably easier. The paper will ask the question, then answer it. The key to successful scientific writing is getting the structure of the paper right. The basic structure of a typical research paper is the sequence of Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (sometimes abbreviated as IMRAD). Each section addresses a different objective. The authors state: (i) the problem they intend to address—in other terms, the research question—in the Introduction; (ii) what they did to answer the question in the Methods section; (iii) what they observed in the Results section; and (iv) what they think the results mean in the Discussion.

In turn, each basic section addresses several topics, and may be divided into subsections (Table 1 ). In the Introduction, the authors should explain the rationale and background to the study. What is the research question, and why is it important to ask it? While it is neither necessary nor desirable to provide a full-blown review of the literature as a prelude to the study, it is helpful to situate the study within some larger field of enquiry. The research question should always be spelled out, and not merely left for the reader to guess.

Typical structure of a research paper

The Methods section should provide the readers with sufficient detail about the study methods to be able to reproduce the study if so desired. Thus, this section should be specific, concrete, technical, and fairly detailed. The study setting, the sampling strategy used, instruments, data collection methods, and analysis strategies should be described. In the case of qualitative research studies, it is also useful to tell the reader which research tradition the study utilizes and to link the choice of methodological strategies with the research goals [ 3 ].

The Results section is typically fairly straightforward and factual. All results that relate to the research question should be given in detail, including simple counts and percentages. Resist the temptation to demonstrate analytic ability and the richness of the dataset by providing numerous tables of non-essential results.

The Discussion section allows the most freedom. This is why the Discussion is the most difficult to write, and is often the weakest part of a paper. Structured Discussion sections have been proposed by some journal editors [ 4 ]. While strict adherence to such rules may not be necessary, following a plan such as that proposed in Table 1 may help the novice writer stay on track.

References should be used wisely. Key assertions should be referenced, as well as the methods and instruments used. However, unless the paper is a comprehensive review of a topic, there is no need to be exhaustive. Also, references to unpublished work, to documents in the grey literature (technical reports), or to any source that the reader will have difficulty finding or understanding should be avoided.

Having the structure of the paper in place is a good start. However, there are many details that have to be attended to while writing. An obvious recommendation is to read, and follow, the instructions to authors published by the journal (typically found on the journal’s website). Another concerns non-native writers of English: do have a native speaker edit the manuscript. A paper usually goes through several drafts before it is submitted. When revising a paper, it is useful to keep an eye out for the most common mistakes (Table 2 ). If you avoid all those, your paper should be in good shape.

Common mistakes seen in manuscripts submitted to this journal

Huth EJ . How to Write and Publish Papers in the Medical Sciences , 2nd edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1990 .

Browner WS . Publishing and Presenting Clinical Research . Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999 .

Devers KJ , Frankel RM. Getting qualitative research published. Educ Health 2001 ; 14 : 109 –117.

Docherty M , Smith R. The case for structuring the discussion of scientific papers. Br Med J 1999 ; 318 : 1224 –1225.

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COVID-19 Research Articles Downloadable Database

March 19, 2020

Updated January 12, 2024

COVID-19 Research Guide Home

• Research Articles Downloadable Database
• COVID-19 Science Updates
• Databases and Journals
• Secondary Data and Statistics

Important announcement:  

The CDC Database of COVID-19 Research Articles became a collaboration with the WHO to create the  WHO COVID-19 database  during the pandemic to make it easier for results to be searched, downloaded, and used by researchers worldwide.

The last version of the CDC COVID-19 database was archived and remain available on this website.  Please note that it has stopped updating as of October 9, 2020 and all new articles were integrated into the  WHO COVID-19 database .  The WHO Covid-19 Research Database was a resource created in response to the Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). Its content remains searchable and spans the time period March 2020 to June 2023. Since June 2023, manual updates to the database have been discontinued.

If you have any questions, concerns, or problems accessing the WHO COVID-19 Database please email the CDC Library for assistance.

Materials listed in these guides are selected to provide awareness of quality public health literature and resources. A material’s inclusion does not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the Public Health Service (PHS), or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), nor does it imply endorsement of the material’s methods or findings.

Below are options to download the archive of COVID-19 research articles.  You can search the database of citations by author, keyword (in title, author, abstract, subject headings fields), journal, or abstract when available.  DOI, PMID, and URL links are included when available.

This database was last updated on October 9, 2020 .

• The CDC Database of COVID-19 Research Articles is now a part of the WHO COVID-19 database .  Our new  search results are now being sent to the WHO COVID-19 Database to make it easier for them to be searched, downloaded, and used by researchers worldwide. The WHO Covid-19 Research Database was a resource created in response to the Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). Its content remains searchable and spans the time period March 2020 to June 2023. Since June 2023, manual updates to the database have been discontinued.
• To help inform CDC’s COVID-19 Response, as well as to help CDC staff stay up to date on the latest COVID-19 research, the Response’s Office of the Chief Medical Officer has collaborated with the CDC Office of Library Science to create a series called COVID-19 Science Update . This series, the first of its kind for a CDC emergency response, provides brief summaries of new COVID-19-related studies on many topics, including epidemiology, clinical treatment and management, laboratory science, and modeling. As of December 18, 2021, CDC has stopped production of the weekly COVID-19 Science Update.

Excel download:

• Articles from August until October 9 2020 [XLS – 29 MB]
• Articles from December 2019 through July 2020 [XLS – 45 MB]
• The CDC Database of COVID-19 Research Articles is now a part of the WHO COVID-19 database .  Our new search results are now being sent to the WHO COVID-19 Database to make it easier for them to be searched, downloaded, and used by researchers worldwide.
• October 8 in Excel [XLS – 1 MB]
• October 7 in Excel [XLS – 1 MB]
• October 6 in Excel [XLS – 1 MB]
• Note the main Excel file can also be sorted by date added.

Citation Management Software (EndNote, Mendeley, Zotero, Refman, etc.)  download:

• Part 1 [ZIP – 38 MB]
• Part 2 [ZIP – 43 MB]
• October 8 in citation management software format [RIS – 2 MB]
• October 7 in citation management software format [RIS – 2 MB]
• October 6 in citation management software format [RIS – 2 MB]
• Note the main RIS file can also be sorted by date added.

The COVID-19 pandemic is a rapidly changing situation.  Some of the research included above is preliminary.  Materials listed in this database are selected to provide awareness of quality public health literature and resources. A material’s inclusion does not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the Public Health Service (PHS), or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), nor does it imply endorsement of the material’s methods or findings.

To access the full text, click on the DOI, PMID, or URL links.  While most publishers are making their COVID-19 content Open Access, some articles are accessible only to those with a CDC user id and password. Find a library near you that may be able to help you get access to articles by clicking the following links: https://www.worldcat.org/libraries OR https://www.usa.gov/libraries .

CDC users can use EndNote’s Find Full Text feature to attach the full text PDFs within their EndNote Library.  CDC users, please email Martha Knuth for an EndNote file of all citations.  Once you have your EndNote file downloaded, to get the full-text of journal articles listed in the search results you can do the following steps:

• First, try using EndNote’s “Find Full-Text” feature to attach full-text articles to your EndNote Library.
• Next, check for full-text availability, via the E-Journals list, at: http://sfxhosted.exlibrisgroup.com/cdc/az   .
• If you can’t find full-text online, you can request articles via DocExpress, at: https://docexpress.cdc.gov/illiad/

The following databases were searched from Dec. 2019-Oct. 9 2020 for articles related to COVID-19: Medline (Ovid and PubMed), PubMed Central, Embase, CAB Abstracts, Global Health, PsycInfo, Cochrane Library, Scopus, Academic Search Complete, Africa Wide Information, CINAHL, ProQuest Central, SciFinder, the Virtual Health Library, and LitCovid.  Selected grey literature sources were searched as well, including the WHO COVID-19 website, CDC COVID-19 website, Eurosurveillance, China CDC Weekly, Homeland Security Digital Library, ClinicalTrials.gov, bioRxiv (preprints), medRxiv (preprints), chemRxiv (preprints), and SSRN (preprints).

Detailed search strings with synonyms used for COVID-19 are below.

Detailed search strategy for gathering COVID-19 articles, updated October 9, 2020 [PDF – 135 KB]

Note on preprints:   Preprints have not been peer-reviewed. They should not be regarded as conclusive, guide clinical practice/health-related behavior, or be reported in news media as established information.

Materials listed in these guides are selected to provide awareness of quality public health literature and resources. A material’s inclusion does not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the Public Health Service (PHS), or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), nor does it imply endorsement of the material’s methods or findings. HHS, PHS, and CDC assume no responsibility for the factual accuracy of the items presented. The selection, omission, or content of items does not imply any endorsement or other position taken by HHS, PHS, and CDC. Opinion, findings, and conclusions expressed by the original authors of items included in these materials, or persons quoted therein, are strictly their own and are in no way meant to represent the opinion or views of HHS, PHS, or CDC. References to publications, news sources, and non-CDC Websites are provided solely for informational purposes and do not imply endorsement by HHS, PHS, or CDC.

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Research articles

Structure of a fully assembled γδ t-cell antigen receptor.

• Benjamin S. Gully
• João Ferreira Fernandes
• Simon J. Davis

Encoding of female mating dynamics by a hypothalamic line attractor

• Aditya Nair
• David J. Anderson

Causal evidence of a line attractor encoding an affective state

• Amit Vinograd

Remodelling of the translatome controls diet and its impact on tumorigenesis

During fasting, hepatocytes selectively remodel the translatome while global translation is downregulated, showing a new signalling property of fatty acids and that, on a ketogenic diet, treatment with eFT508 (also known as tomivosertib; a P-eIF4E inhibitor) restrains pancreatic tumour growth.

• Haojun Yang
• Vincenzo Andrea Zingaro
• Davide Ruggero

Mitochondrial complex I promotes kidney cancer metastasis

Studying changes in the metabolic properties of kidney cancer in patients reveals an increased need for mitochondrial metabolism as tumors metastasize from the kidney to distant organs.

• Divya Bezwada
• Luigi Perelli
• Ralph J. DeBerardinis

A Scottish provenance for the Altar Stone of Stonehenge

Mineral ages and chemical analysis of fragments of the Altar Stone from the Neolithic stone circle at Stonehenge suggest that it was transported from northeast Scotland, more than 750 km away, probably by sea.

• Anthony J. I. Clarke
• Christopher L. Kirkland
• Rob A. Ixer

Molecular architecture of coronavirus double-membrane vesicle pore complex

A study details the molecular architecture of the double-membrane-spanning pore formed by the proteins nsp3 and nsp4 in double-membrane vesicles of SARS-CoV-2.

• Yixin Huang
• Tongyun Wang

Human organoids with an autologous tissue-resident immune compartment

We combined human intestinal immuno-organoids and single-cell transcriptomics to investigate intestinal inflammation triggered by cancer-targeting biologics, which was associated with an activated population of CD8 + T cells that progressively acquired intraepithelial and cytotoxic features.

• Timothy Recaldin
• Linda Steinacher
• Nikolche Gjorevski

Structural basis for the activity of the type VII CRISPR–Cas system

We describe the structure and activity of Cas14 nuclease, a component of the type VII CRISPR–Cas interference complex with Cas5 and Cas7, in different functional states.

• Xuzichao Li

Origin and evolution of the bread wheat D genome

Analysis of 46 newly sequenced or re-sequenced Tausch’s goatgrass ( Aegilops tauschii ) accessions establishes the origin of the bread wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) D genome from genetically and geographically discrete Ae. tauschii subpopulations.

• Emile Cavalet-Giorsa
• Andrea González-Muñoz
• Simon G. Krattinger

Substrate binding and inhibition mechanism of norepinephrine transporter

Structures of human NET in the apo state and bound to meta-iodobenzylguanidine and radafaxine provide insights into the mechanism of substrate recognition and orthosteric inhibition of hNET.

• Jing-Xiang Wu

Abstract representations emerge in human hippocampal neurons during inference

A task in which participants learned to perform inference led to the formation of hippocampal representations whose geometric properties reflected the latent structure of the task, indicating that abstract or disentangled neural representations are important for complex cognition.

• Hristos S. Courellis
• Juri Minxha
• Ueli Rutishauser

Continuously fluctuating selection reveals fine granularity of adaptation

Natural environmental and ecological shifts impose sufficiently strong selection to drive exceptionally rapid, parallel and fluctuating adaptive tracking in a Drosophila melangaster mesocosm.

• M. C. Bitter
• D. A. Petrov

On-chip topological beamformer for multi-link terahertz 6G to XG wireless

An on-chip topological beamformer for multi-link terahertz 6G to XG wireless communication achieves complete 360° azimuthal beamforming with gains of up to 20 dBi, radiating THz signals into free space with neural-network-driven customizable beams enabling up to eight simultaneous 40-Gbps wireless links.

• Wenhao Wang
• Ranjan Singh

De novo design of allosterically switchable protein assemblies

We investigate the de novo design of allostery and suggest that it can arise from global coupling of the energetics of protein substructures without optimized allosteric communication pathways, providing a roadmap for the design of switchable molecular systems.

• Arvind Pillai
• Abbas Idris
• David Baker

Twist-assisted all-antiferromagnetic tunnel junction in the atomic limit

By twisting two bilayers of CrSBr, which is a 2D antiferromagnet, a >700% nonvolatile tunnelling magnetoresistance at zero field is shown, demonstrating a new strategy for constructing all-antiferromagnetic tunnel junctions down to the atomic limit.

• Yuliang Chen
• Kartik Samanta
• Stuart S. P. Parkin

A hot-emitter transistor based on stimulated emission of heated carriers

A mixed-dimensional hot-emitter transistor based on mixed-dimensional graphene/germanium Schottky junctions uses stimulated emission of heated carriers, achieving an ultralow subthreshold swing and a high negative differential resistance.

• Xin-Zhe Wang
• Hui-Ming Cheng

Recognition and control of neutrophil extracellular trap formation by MICL

How MICL recognizes and autoregulates the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps is explored in mouse models and human patients where disease severity is associated with aberrant neutrophil extracellular trap formation.

• Mariano Malamud
• Lauren Whitehead
• Gordon D. Brown

Unimolecular net heterolysis of symmetric and homopolar σ-bonds

Net heterolysis of symmetric and homopolar σ-bonds by stimulated doublet–doublet electron transfer is reported in a series of atypical S N 1 reactions, in which selenides show SDET-induced nucleofugalities rivalling those of more electronegative halides or diazoniums.

• Anna F. Tiefel
• Daniel J. Grenda
• Alexander Breder

Growth of complete ammonia oxidizers on guanidine

Nitrospira inopinata and probably most other comammox microorganisms can grow on the non-conventional substrate guanidine as the sole source of energy, reductant and nitrogen.

• Marton Palatinszky
• Craig W. Herbold
• Michael Wagner

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A systematic review of neural, cognitive, and clinical studies of anger and aggression

Yuliya richard.

1 Blue Horizon Counseling Services, Sydney, Australia

2 Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain

3 Universite Med 5th, Rabat, Morocco

Dorota Frydecka

4 Department of Psychiatry, Wroclaw Medical University, Pasteur Street 10, 50-367 Wroclaw, Poland

Mohamed S. Hamid

5 College of Education, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

Ahmed A. Moustafa

6 Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 2193 South Africa

7 School of Psychology, Faculty of Society and Design, Bond University, Gold Coast, QLD Australia

Associated Data

No data is collected in this systematic review.

Anger and aggression have large impact on people’s safety and the society at large. In order to provide an intervention to minimise aggressive behaviours, it is important to understand the neural and cognitive aspects of anger and aggression. In this systematic review, we investigate the cognitive and neural aspects of anger-related processes, including anger-related behaviours and anger reduction. Using this information, we then review prior existing methods on the treatment of anger-related disorders as well as anger management, including mindfulness and cognitive behavioural therapy. At the cognitive level, our review that anger is associated with excessive attention to anger-related stimuli and impulsivity. At the neural level, anger is associated with abnormal functioning of the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. In conclusion s, based on cognitive and neural studies, we here argue that mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy may be better at reducing anger and aggression than other behavioural treatments, such as cognitive behavioural therapy or mindfulness alone. We provide key information on future research work and best ways to manage anger and reduce aggression. Importantly, future research should investigate how anger related behaviours is acquired and how stress impacts the development of anger.

Introduction

There are at least two views of emotions. First, emotions are perceived as discrete concepts (Ekman, 2016 ), comprised of six categories: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. The discrete view of emotions has dominated psychology research for several decades, although there are arguments against it (Cowen et al., 2019 ). Cowen et al. ( 2019 ) argue that emotions are more complex than the basic six emotional categories. They argue that humans can experience a mix of these emotions, and also feelings that do not fall into these six categories. Further, another view is the social constructionist view, which considers emotions as products of brain processes in interaction with different social realities (Barrett, 2006 ). The latter view is more suited to better explain the complexities of emotional processes (including anger), and aligns well the high dimensional view of emotions by Cowen et al. ( 2019 ).

According to Blair ( 2012 ), anger occurs in different scenarios, including exposure to extreme heat, not receiving an expected reward, being treated unfairly, or actions by others that impact one’s goals or plans. Along these lines, anger feelings can occur when one’s goal is blocked (Berkowitz, 1993 ). For example, using simulated driving experiments, drivers may show anger feelings when they are forced to slow down (Stephens & Groeger, 2009 ). Another study found that sleep deprivation was related to the development of anger (Saghir et al., 2018 ). One study reported that anger and aggression can occur due to social rejection, frustration, provocation, and social stress (Lickley & Sebastian, 2018 ). Furthermore, state anger was shown to be associated with feelings of revenge (DiGiuseppe & Froh, 2002 ). Several studies have also shown that anger occurs due to social isolation and restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic (Abadi et al., 2021 ; Aki et al., 2020 ; Smith et al., 2021 ).

Anger is important to investigate as it is an approach-, rather than avoidance- related response (Carver & Harmon-Jones, 2009 ). Anger is in contrast to other negative emotional feelings, such as depression or sadness, as the latter do not often lead to approach behaviours (Zhan et al., 2018 ). This has been experimentally corroborated using reaction time tasks of moving forward or backward in response to neutral or anger-related words (Mayan & Meiran, 2011 ). In this study, presenting participants with anger-related stimuli has led to moving forward more than when presenting them with neutral stimuli. This can possibly explain why anger can sometimes lead to aggressive behaviours.

Although important, anger-related disorders only appear in DSM, as symptoms of clinical disorders, such as oppositional defiant disorder and intermittent explosive disorder (APA, 2013 ). Many patient populations show problems with anger management (Lievaart et al., 2016 ), including borderline personality disorder (Critchfield et al., 2004 ). Several studies have found that anger is related to alcohol and drug abuse. One study found cannabis use disorder is associated with inability to control anger among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans (Dillon et al., 2021 ). Other studies also found that state and trait anger are risk factors for substance use and abuse (Baharvand & Malekshahi, 2019 ). Alcohol use disorders were found to be related to both state and trait anger (Sharma et al., 2017 ). The impact of alcohol on anger could be related to the activation of GABA receptors, and thus inhibiting the prefrontal cortex (Abernathy et al., 2010 ; Tu et al., 2007 ). As we discuss below, the prefrontal cortex plays a key role in anger control and a damage to this area may then increase anger-related behaviours.

The current paper also deals with few challenges in the literature, including the following: (a) what is the relationship between anger and aggression, (b) which cognitive processes are associated with anger and aggression, (c) what are the neural substrates of anger and aggressive behaviour, and (d) what are best interventions or counselling techniques for minimizing anger and aggression. Importantly, unlike prior work, here, we aim to link successful intervention to cognitive and neural substrates of anger and aggression.

Anger can often lead to aggression, which has negative impacts on the individual and society. While anger is an emotional feeling, aggression/violence is a behaviour that can occur mostly due to anger-related feelings. It is important to note that there are many differences between state and trait anger (for discussion, see Spielberger, 1988 ). According to Spielberger ( 1988 ), unlike trait anger, state anger is a transient subjective emotional feeling of intense fury and rage. We suggest that state anger is most likely initiated more by very extreme external factors, while individuals with high trait anger may show anger-related behaviours (e.g., violence, aggression, among others) in response to minor hostility, such as provocation or insult (Deffenbacher, 1992 ; Smith et al., 2004 ). While it is perceived as maladaptive, it has been argued that anger has a very important evolutionary value for personality building and growth (Williams, 2017 ). While it is often assumed that anger feelings will lead to aggressive behaviours (Cheriji et al., 2012 ), this is not always the case. This assumption is based on findings that anger feelings are very strong, making aggression a likely outcome. However, some anger management techniques were found to reduce anger but not aggression (Chambers et al., 2009 ), suggesting that anger and aggression are not always interrelated. Further, it is not clear if anger leads to either reactive (i.e., impulsive) or proactive (i.e., planned) aggression (Lickley & Sebastian, 2018 ). Unlike proactive aggression, impulsive aggression has been reported in many patient populations, such as schizophrenia and PTSD (Arseneault et al., 2000 ; Comai et al., 2012a , b ; Hoptman, 2015 ).

Anger is important to treat, as anger control deficits have negative consequences. A lack of anger control was found to negatively impact mental health (Prabhu et al., 2014 ) and lead to poor and maladaptive decisions (Meissner et al., 2021 ). For example, Masood et al. ( 2019 ) suggested that anger could be a factor underlying suicide ideation. Further, anger and suicide are were found to be common and related in younger than older adults (Khan & Hyder, 2006 ). Many individuals arrested for domestic violence incidents often undergo anger management training (Lee & DiGiuseppe, 2018 ), as anger is the likely culprit of violence-related behaviours. Further, anger can impact relationships and lead to domestic violence (Baron et al., 2007 ). See Fig.  1 for a description of negative consequences of anger.

A description of cognitive processes underlying anger as well as consequents of anger

Importantly, the goal of this article is to investigate the cognitive and neural substrates of anger and aggression, and then use this information to investigate best treatment for anger and aggression. It is hoped that effective treatments for anger should be able to ameliorate anger-related cognitive and neural dysfunction.

In this systematic review, we have searched the following databases: Google Scholar, ProQuest, Pubmed, and PsychInfo. We have used a combination of two keywords in our searches. The first key word was anger, anger management, anger control, anger prevention, aggression, and anger-related processes. The second keyword was neural, brain, cognition, clinical, depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, psychiatric (as well as variations of these words, such as bipolar). In addition, the search was limited to studies that used human participants and were published in English. Further, we have examined each paper carefully to make sure the goal of the study is examining anger and its relation to cognition, the brain, and clinical disorders. Studies that did not specifically measure anger were excluded. After removing duplicates and unrelated articles, here, we discuss 46 articles. Importantly, in discussion, we explain the relationship among all of these processes, such as the relationship between cognitive underpinnings of anger and its treatment. Please, see our search strategy in Fig.  2 .

Search strategy used in our systematic review

This study is designed in order to link successful interventions and counselling techniques for anger-related behaviours and aggression to existing cognitive and neural dysfunction. Accordingly, key words used in the systematic review were selected to first explain cognitive and neural abnormalities related to anger and aggression. Following that, key words related to intervention or counselling for anger and aggression are selected. After finding all related papers, we have divided our search findings into three related themes: cognitive correlates of anger, neural substrates of anger, and the treatment of anger. Below, we discuss each in detail, respectively.

Cognitive Correlates of Anger: Focus on Attention and Impulsivity

Several studies have investigated cognitive processes underlying state and trait anger as well as aggression (Simmons et al., 2022 ; Wilkowski & Robinson, 2008 , 2010 ). To our knowledge, at least, three studies found that anger is related to frontal-based cognitive processes, such as attention, cognitive control (Rueda et al., 2004 ; Zelazo & Cunningham, 2007 ) and emotional dysregulation (Koole & Tschacher, 2016 ; Szasz et al., 2011 ).

Studies have shown that anger is related to paying excessive attention to anger-related stimuli. For example, individuals high in trait anger pay more attention to anger- and hostile-related stimuli than individuals low in trait anger (Alia-Klein et al., 2018 ; Gable, et al., 2015a , 2015b ). Some studies also have found that compared to individuals low in high trait anger, individuals high in trait anger tend to pay more attention to anger- and hostile-related stimuli in the environment (Wilkowski & Robinson, 2008 ). Using an emotional Stroop task that include anger-related stimuli, it was found that individuals who are high on trait anger show difficulty disengaging from anger-related stimuli (Eckhardt & Cohen, 1997 ; Putman et al., 2004 ; Smith & Waterman, 2005 ; van Honk et al., 2001 ). Using the visual search task, it was also found that individuals who are high on trait anger pay a lot more attention to anger-related than neutral stimuli (P. Smith & Waterman, 2003 ). Along these lines, it has been reported that trait anger impacts the functioning of brain regions responsible for attentional processes (Alia-Klein et al., 2018 ).

In addition to attention, several studies found that impulsivity is a key factor underlying the occurrence of anger-related processes. For example, Masood et al. ( 2019 ) investigated differences in impulsivity and anger in two groups of Pakistani students: suicide ideators and non-ideators. They found anger and impulsivity were higher than in suicide ideators than in suicide non-ideators (for similar results also see Daniel et al., 2009 ). Similar results on the association between impulsivity, anger, and suicide were reported in different Eastern and Western countries (Ammerman et al., 2015 ; McGirr et al., 2008 ; Wang et al., 2014 ). The anger-based Go/NoGo task was also used to measure impulsivity in relation to anger. In this task, participants were required to either respond (Go trials) or not to respond (NoGo trials) for different both neutral and anger-related stimuli. It was also found that trait anger is related to impulsivity in anger-based Go/NoGo task (Lievaart et al., 2018 ). See Fig.  1 for a description of cognitive processes underlying anger-related processes. In sum, most prior studies found that anger and aggression are related to paying attention to anger-related stimuli in the environment as well as impulsive behaviours.

Neural Substrates of Anger

There are several brain areas that play a role in anger-related processes, including the amygdala and several frontal cortical areas. While there are other brain regions implicated in anger such as the hypothalamus (Gouveia et al., 2019 ) and the periaqueductal grey region (Blair, 2016 ; Gouveia et al., 2019 ), in this section, we will focus on brain regions related to understanding higher-level processes of anger and its treatment: the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

Several studies show that the amygdala plays a role in anger processing (Alia-Klein et al., 2009 , 2020 ; Blair, 2012 ; Carlson et al., 2010 ). For example, it has been shown that amygdala activation increases in response to the presentation of angry stimuli (Derntl et al., 2009 ). In patients with social phobia, the amygdala showed higher activation in response to fear stimuli (Stein et al., 2002 ). Amygdala lesion was found to impair ability to perceive fear and anger (Scott et al., 1997 ). It is argued that an increase in testosterone levels impacts amygdala activity, leading to anger induction (Batrinos, 2012 ). Importantly, the amygdala includes several subregions that belong to different functional systems (Moustafa et al., 2013 ; Swanson & Petrovich, 1998 ). One area of the amygdala is the medial and central nucleus of the amygdala, which plays a role in expression of emotions. Another area is the basolateral nuclei of the amygdala, which was found to play a role in emotional learning and threat detection (Silva et al., 2016 ). One study found that the medial amygdala plays a role in rivalry aggression while the central amygdala plays a role in predatory aggression (Haller, 2018 ). Another study reported that the central amygdala plays a role in maternal aggression (Bosch & Neumann, 2010 ). Interestingly, unlike the central nucleus, one study has reported that the basolateral amygdala plays a role in reactive aggression (Buades-Rotger et al., 2019 ). In sum, these studies show that the amygdala plays a key role in processing and encoding anger and aggression.

In addition to the amygdala, several frontal cortical areas play a role in anger-related processes. For example, it has been reported that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) plays a key role in controlling anger (Alia-Klein et al., 2009 ; Klimecki et al., 2018 ) as well aggressive behaviours (Gilam et al., 2018 ; Yang et al., 2017 ). In one study, it was found that higher ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity is associated with experiencing less anger in the Ultimatum game (Gilam et al., 2015 ), suggesting that this brain area inhibit anger-related behaviours. In another study, it was found that the left anterior middle frontal gyrus (which is connected to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex) plays a role in anger control and reduction (Eshel et al., 2021 ). These findings are in agreement with studies showing frontal lesion or injury can lead to increased anger and aggression (Cristofori et al., 2016 ; Grafman et al., 1996 ; Seguin, 2009 ). In sum, prior studies show that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays a key role in anger control and reduction.

In addition to the ventromedial cortex and dorsal prefrontal cortex, other cortical regions, including the anterior cingulate and insula were found to play a role in anger and aggression, including reactive aggression (Denson et al., 2009 ; Kramer et al., 2007 ). An increase of activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and insula were reported in anger-inducing situations (Damasio et al., 2000 ).

It is important to note that these brain regions do not work in isolation, as the amygdala and other cortical areas discussed above are heavily interconnected. For example, it is known for several decades that frontal cortical areas, including ventromedial prefrontal cortex, insula, anterior cingulate, and dorsal prefrontal regions are connected via bidirectional pathways (Morawetz et al., 2016 ). Further, while the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex play a role in anger encoding and inhibition, they both projects to dorsal prefrontal regions responsible for the initiation of anger-related behaviours. This is supported by studies showing that the frontal cortex seems be the locus of anger-related behaviours, that is, anger expression (Blair, 2012 ). One study found that reactive aggression and anger is associated with a decreased connectivity between the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex (Siep et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, most frontal cortical regions send projections to different subregions in the amygdala, including via the intercalated cells to the central nucleus as well as to the basolateral amygdala (Alexandra Kredlow et al., 2021 ; Ganella et al., 2017 ; Gold et al., 2016 ; Pare & Smith, 1993 ). However, it is not known how the interconnections among these cortical and subcortical structures mediate anger-related behaviours. Figure  3 shows a simplified neural network underlying anger encoding, expression, and reduction.

Neural underpinnings of anger, showing dual pathways of anger induction and control. While the amygdala plays a role in anger induction, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and associated areas play a role in anger control. Green lines represent induction while red lines represent inhibition of anger responses. See text for discussion

Treatment of Anger and Aggression

There are different kinds of treatments for the treatment of anger and aggression. Cognitively oriented psychotherapies have been shown to be successful in reducing an individual’s tendency toward anger and reactive aggression (Beck & Fernandez, 1998 ; Deffenbacher et al., 2000 ). Anger management was found to decrease aggression (Valizadeh et al., 2010 ) as well as increase self-esteem (Bradbury & Clarke, 2007 ).

However, the most commonly used treatment for anger are cognitive behavioural therapy and mindfulness (see for example, Onwubiko, 2022 ). For a recent review on the use of cognitive behavioral therapy and mindfulness for the treatment of anger and aggression, see Didden et al. ( 2019 ). However, the Didden et al. ( 2019 ) review study did not compare which treatment, cognitive behavioural therapy or mindfulness, is more effective at treating anger and aggression.

Several studies have used cognitive behavioural therapy for the treatment of anger and aggression (Haustein et al., 2021 ; Lee & DiGiuseppe, 2018 ; Sukhodolsky et al., 2016 ). It has been found that cognitive behavioural therapy can effectively manage and reduce anger-related feelings and behaviours (Henwood et al., 2015 ). Cognitive behavioural therapies tend to modify erroneous beliefs (Meyerhoff & Rohan, 2016 ; Pittig et al., 2019 ). In terms of anger, some of the wrong beliefs include “I am a better driver than other drivers” (which can lead to anger feelings when a driver makes a minor mistake) or “I am a better partner than my wife” (which leads to anger feelings when a partner does minor mistakes). Further, several studies have reported that cognitive behavioural therapy is effective for the treatment aggression in patients with intellectual disabilities (Allan et al., 2001 ; Didden et al., 2016 ; Howells et al., 2000 ; Lindsay et al., 2003 ; Taylor & Novaco, 2013 ). Didden et al. ( 2016 ) argued cognitive behavioural therapy has some limitations (e.g., ineffective in some individuals as well as relapse) which need to be augmented with other treatment to address mental health problems in individuals who present with aggression problems.

In addition to cognitive behavioural therapy, mindfulness-based therapy is commonly used to treat anger and aggression. Mindfulness was found to be negatively related to anger and aggressive behaviour among drivers (Borders et al., 2010 ; Stephens et al., 2018 ). Mindfulness training is successful at reducing anger (Amutio et al., 2014 ; Fix & Fix, 2013 ; Heppner et al., 2008 ; Wright et al., 2009 ). Mindfulness helps to increase awareness to the current situation in order to assess it and act in a more appropriate way. Mindfulness training techniques were also found to decrease amygdala activity (Murakami et al., 2015 ), explaining perhaps how mindfulness is effective at treating anger. Mindfulness training includes training clients to disengage their attention from anger-related triggers (Didden et al., 2019 ). Several other studies have shown that mindfulness training successfully reduced aggression in individuals with intellectual disabilities (Singh et al., 2013 ), although it is not clear if these findings are generalizable to other populations.

Importantly, several studies have tested whether mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy is effective at treating anger and aggression (see for example, Kelly, 2007 ; Sohn et al., 2018 ). One study found that mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy is more effective at reducing anger in male taxi drivers than cognitive behavioural therapy (Kazemeini et al., 2013 ). Along these lines, it has been reported that mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy can effectively decrease impulsive behaviours and increase emotional regulation, thus managing anger and aggression (Clark, 2020 ). In a recent study conducted in Iran, it was found that mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy effectively improved anger control in males (Badpa et al., 2019 ). Mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy was also found to reduce driving anger (Diebold, 2003 ).

In this review, we discussed the cognitive correlates of anger, neural substrates of anger, anger-related disorders, and the treatment of anger and its related disorders. In terms of cognitive underpinnings of anger, we found that impulsivity and impaired attention are related to anger processes.

Importantly, we found that like anxiety and drug seeking processes, there are different neural substrates for anger induction and anger control. The role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in anger control is similar to its role in reducing drug-seeking behaviours (Ebrahimi et al., 2019 ; Ghazizadeh et al., 2012 ; Konova et al., 2019 ; Peters et al., 2013 ; Radell et al., 2020 ; Sheynin et al., 2016 ) and anxiety (Hennings et al., 2020 ; Kalisch et al., 2006 ; Moustafa et al., 2013 ; Quirk et al., 2000 ; Radell et al., 2017 ; Scharfenort & Lonsdorf, 2016 ; Sierra-Mercado et al., 2010 ). These studies suggest that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is very likely a control/inhibition mechanism for different behaviours, including drug seeking, anxiety, and anger This view is supported by recent studies on the role of vmPFC in anger and anxiety (Suzuki & Tanaka, 2021 ) and also on the close connection between anxiety and anger (Carre et al., 2012 ).

In short, the brain has likely evolved a mechanism that include regions for anger expression and different regions for anger reduction. This is most likely similar to other processes, such as the direct and indirect pathways in the basal ganglia that initiate and inhibit movement (Frank et al., 2007 ; Mandali et al., 2015 ; Moustafa et al., 2016 ), brain stimuli nuclei that control sleep (Hassani, Lee, & Jones), prefrontal-hippocampal circuit that control memory retrieval and submission (Benoit & Anderson, 2012 ), and amygdala regions that regulate fear initiation and expression (Strobel et al., 2015 ). For discussion on this topic, see Moustafa ( 2015 ).

Based on studies discussed above showing that anxiety and anger share some similarities, it is suggested that similar treatment strategies can be used for the treatment of both disorders (Brondolo et al., 1997 ). For example, cue exposure therapy has been extensively used for the treatment for anxiety (Suveg et al., 2018 ; Tay et al., 2019 ). Accordingly, Brondolo et al. ( 1997 ) suggested that cue exposure therapy can be used for the treatment of anger-related disorders. They suggested that like anxiety, anger can be triggered by some stimuli in the environment, and cue exposure therapy can teach patients with anger-related disorders to reduce their anger behaviours in relation to these triggers. Cue exposure therapy is an established treatment for anxiety disorders (Bahi & Dreyer, 2020 ; Javanbakht, 2018 ; Loucks et al., 2019 ; Nonkes et al., 2012 ; Stenmark et al., 2013 ). Other studies have also shown that cue exposure therapy can effectively decrease anger feelings (Stapleton et al., 2006 ).

Importantly, our review shows that mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy is more effective at treating anger and aggression than other behavioural treatments. This is possibly due to mindfulness based cognitive behavioural therapy ameliorates cognitive and neural abnormalities related to anger. For example, several studies found that mindfulness can increase attention and decrease impulsivity (Franco et al., 2016 ; Korponay et al., 2019 ; Liu et al., 2021 ; Wimmer et al., 2020 ) and also ameliorate ventromedial prefrontal cortex function (Kirk et al., 2014 ). Similarly, cognitive behavioural therapy was found to increase activity of cortical and subcortical structures impacted by anger, including prefrontal cortex, insula, and anterior cingulate (Porto et al., 2009 ; Seminowicz et al., 2013 ; Straube et al., 2006 ). These findings could explain why combining both mindfulness and cognitive behavioural therapy is more effective at managing anger than each therapy alone.

Future Work

Given the similarity between anxiety, drug addiction, and anger (see above, and also see Walsh et al., 2018 ), future research should investigate environmental cues that leads to anger. Furthermore, there has been research on the acquisition of emotional responses in the domain of fear and anxiety. Along these lines, given the potential similar role for ventromedial prefrontal cortex and also amygdala in both anxiety and anger, it is possible treatments used for anxiety can successfully also manage anger. Our study has implications for counselling services in high (secondary) schools for mitigating violence and aggression (Arfasa & Weldmeskel, 2020 ). Counselling techniques should include methods to enhance anger control (by activating the ventromedial prefrontal cortex). These techniques can help improve academic and emotional performance of high school students (Arfasa & Weldmeskel, 2020 ). These points should be investigated in future studies.

Research has shown that anxiety can be acquired (Barot et al., 2009 ; Park et al., 2020 ; Rio-Alamos et al., 2015 ). However, to our knowledge, there are almost no research studies on how anger responses are acquired (or learned) in animals and humans. One exception is a study by Stephens and Groeger ( 2011 ) showing anger elicited in one situation can be carried over to subsequent similar scenarios.

Further, anger and aggression have been defined across different dimensions, such that there are state and trait anger and reactive and proactive aggression (see I ntroduction). However, it is not known how the different types of anger to relate to different types of aggression, which should be investigated in future work .

Furthermore, it is not clear why people are easier to have anger feelings when distressed (O'Grady et al., 2012 ; Onyedibe et al., 2020 ). It is possible that this is due to distress increases amygdala activity (Chen et al., 2017 ; Ressler, 2010 ), leading to anger induction. Another potential mechanism is stress causes homeostatic imbalance (Ladakis & Chouvarda, 2021 ), which can, in turn, increase anger feelings and expression (Robins & Novaco, 1999 ; Sorci et al., 2013 ; Williams, 2017 ). Further, future work should investigate mediating factors underlying the distress-anger relationship. It is possible that emotional regulation and mindfulness can help reduce anger in distress-related situations.

While it is well-documented that anger may impact decision making and lead to impulsivity, the reverse could also be correct. In other words, an individual’s decision making style may relate to their anger feelings. This can be studied in future studies by using the General Decision Making Style Questionnaire (Scott & Bruce, 1995 ). Individuals who score low in the rational decision making questions may also show more anger feelings.

Importantly, future research should also compare the existing treatments of anger and aggression including mindfulness and cognitive behavioral therapy. To our knowledge, there is only study that have compared mindfulness and cognitive behavioural therapy in the context of driving (Kazemeini et al., 2013 ). Given prior studies and the link between anger and distress, impulsivity, and emotional dysregulation, it is likely that mindfulness will be more effective at managing anger. Further, future work should investigate how both cognitive behavioural therapies and mindfulness modify erroneous beliefs related to anger, as discussed above (Meyerhoff & Rohan, 2016 ; Pittig et al., 2019 ).

Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions

Data Availability

Declarations.

The authors declared not having any conflict of interest.

No ethics application is needed for this systematic review.

The authors confirm that no consent was required here, as the review did not include testing participants.

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Biden Awards $150 Million in Research Grants as Part of Cancer ‘Moonshot’

President Biden has had a deep personal interest in cancer research since his son Beau died of an aggressive brain cancer in 2015.

President Biden Announces $150 Million in Cancer Research Grants

President biden said eight research centers would receive research awards aimed at pioneering new methods of precision cancer surgery as part of his administration’s cancer “moonshoot” initiative..

As all of you know, cancer surgery is an incredibly challenging procedure. It takes the best surgeons in the world, and it takes its toll on families. As Jill and I — as Jill says, it steals time. It steals away hope. Our family knows the feeling, as many here do. Today, we’re announcing $150 million ARPA-H funding for some of the nation’s cutting-edge cancer research institutions. That includes, right here, Tulane University. [cheers] And we’re moving quickly because we know all families touched by cancers are in a race against time. It’s all part of our goal, of our cancer “moonshot,” to end cancer as we know it. Even cure some cancers. We’re mobilizing the whole of country effort to cut American cancer deaths in half by — within 25 years, and boost support for patients and their families. I’m confident in our capacity to do that.

By Zach Montague

Reporting from New Orleans

Freed from the campaign trail and the grinding pursuit of another term, President Biden traveled to New Orleans on Tuesday to focus on a project close to his heart: the “moonshot” effort to sharply cut cancer deaths in the United States that he carried over from his time as vice president and has become a hallmark of his presidency.

Speaking at Tulane University, Mr. Biden and the first lady, Jill Biden, announced eight research centers, including one at Tulane, that will collectively receive $150 million in research awards aimed at pioneering new methods of precision cancer surgery.

Before addressing a crowd on campus, the president and the first lady met with a team of researchers who demonstrated the technology under development at Tulane. It uses imaging of cells on tumor sites to verify for surgeons that cancer cells have been fully removed and to reduce the need for follow-up surgeries.

Standing in front of a sign reading “curing cancer faster,” Mr. Biden described touring cancer centers in Australia and Ireland, and being frustrated by a lack of international collaboration.

“We don’t want to keep information — we want to share it,” he said.

The awards announced on Tuesday are to be made through the Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health , or ARPA-H, which was founded in 2022 and is aimed at driving biomedical innovation.

The other award recipients were Dartmouth College; Johns Hopkins University; Rice University; the University of California, San Francisco; the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; the University of Washington; and Cision Vision in Mountain View, Calif.

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Research shows our bodies go through rapid changes in our 40s and our 60s

For many people, reaching their mid-40s may bring unpleasant signs the body isn’t working as well as it once did. Injuries seem to happen more frequently. Muscles may feel weaker.

A new study, published Wednesday in Nature Aging , shows what may be causing the physical decline. Researchers have found that molecules and microorganisms both inside and outside our bodies are going through dramatic changes, first at about age 44 and then again when we hit 60. Those alterations may be causing significant differences in cardiovascular health and immune function.

The findings come from Stanford scientists who analyzed blood and other biological samples of 108 volunteers ages 25 to 75, who continued to donate samples for several years. 

“While it’s obvious that you’re aging throughout your entire life, there are two big periods where things really shift,” said the study’s senior author, Michael Snyder, a professor of genetics and director of the Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine at Stanford Medicine. For example, “there’s a big shift in the metabolism of lipids when people are in their 40s and in the metabolism of carbohydrates when people are in their 60s.”

Lipids are fatty substances, including LDL, HDL and triglycerides, that perform a host of functions in the body, but they can be harmful if they build up in the blood.

The scientists tracked many kinds of molecules in the samples, including RNA and proteins, as well as the participants’ microbiomes.

The metabolic changes the researchers discovered indicate not that people in their 40s are burning calories more slowly but rather that the body is breaking food down differently. The scientists aren’t sure exactly what impact those changes have on health.

Previous research showed that resting energy use, or metabolic rate , didn’t change from ages 20 to 60. The new study’s findings don't contradict that.

The changes in metabolism affect how the body reacts to alcohol or caffeine, although the health consequences aren’t yet clear. In the case of caffeine, it may result in higher sensitivity. 

It’s also not known yet whether the shifts could be linked to lifestyle or behavioral factors. For example, the changes in alcohol metabolism might be because people are drinking more in their mid-40s, Snyder said.

For now, Snyder suggests people in their 40s keep a close eye on their lipids, especially LDL cholesterol.

“If they start going up, people might want to think about taking statins if that’s what their doctor recommends,” he said. Moreover, “knowing there’s a shift in the molecules that affect muscles and skin, you might want to warm up more before exercising so you don’t hurt yourself.”

Until we know better what those changes mean, the best way to deal with them would be to eat healthy foods and to exercise regularly, Snyder said.Dr. Josef Coresh, founding director of the Optimal Aging Institute at the NYU Grossman School of Medicine, compared the new findings to the invention of the microscope.

“The beauty of this type of paper is the level of detail we can see in molecular changes,” said Coresh, a professor of medicine at the school. “But it will take time to sort out what individual changes mean and how we can tailor medications to those changes. We do know that the origins of many diseases happen in midlife when people are in their 40s, though the disease may occur decades later.”

The new study “is an important step forward,” said Dr. Lori Zeltser, a professor of pathology and cell biology at the Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons. While we don’t know what the consequences of those metabolic changes are yet, “right now, we have to acknowledge that we metabolize food differently in our 40s, and that is something really new.”

The shifts the researchers found might help explain numerous age-related health changes, such as muscle loss, because “your body is breaking down food differently,” Zeltser said.

Linda Carroll is a regular health contributor to NBC News. She is coauthor of "The Concussion Crisis: Anatomy of a Silent Epidemic" and "Out of the Clouds: The Unlikely Horseman and the Unwanted Colt Who Conquered the Sport of Kings." 

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Federal government grants first floating offshore wind power research lease to Maine

FILE - Turbines operate at the Block Island Wind Farm, Dec. 7, 2023, off the coast of Block Island, R.I. (AP Photo/Julia Nikhinson, File)

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PORTLAND, Maine (AP) — The federal government issued on Monday the nation’s first floating offshore wind research lease to the state of Maine, comprising about 23 square miles (60 square kilometers) in federal waters.

The state requested the lease from the federal Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for a floating offshore wind research array with up to a dozen turbines capable of generating up to 144 megawatts of renewable energy in waters nearly 30 miles (48 kilometers) southeast of Portland, Maine.

The research array will use floating offshore wind platforms designed by the University of Maine and deployed by partner Diamond Offshore Wind. But construction is not likely for several years.

The research is key to growing the ocean wind energy industry in Maine.

Democratic Gov. Janet Mills signed a bill last year that aims to see Maine procure enough energy from offshore wind turbines to power about half its electric load by 2040, and the state has selected a site to build, stage and deploy the turbine equipment. In the next decade, University of Maine researchers envision turbine platforms floating in the ocean beyond the horizon, stretching more than 700 feet (210 meters) skyward and anchored with mooring lines.

“Clean energy from offshore wind offers an historic opportunity for Maine to create good-paying jobs, reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, and fight climate change by cutting greenhouse gas emissions,” Mills said.

The state requested the lease in 2021. The roughly 23 square miles (60 square kilometers) in the federal lease is larger than the state’s request of about 15 square miles (39 square kilometers). It will allow the state, the fishing community, oceanography experts and the offshore wind industry to thoroughly evaluate the compatibility of floating offshore wind.

Floating turbines are the only way some states can capture offshore wind energy on a large scale. In the U.S. alone, 2.8 terawatts of wind energy potential blows over ocean waters too deep for traditional turbines that affix to the ocean floor, according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory . That’s enough to power 350 million homes — more than double the number of existing homes in the U.S.

President Joe Biden has made offshore wind a key part of his plans for fighting climate change.

Since the start of his administration, the Department of the Interior has approved the nation’s first nine commercial scale offshore wind projects with a combined capacity of more than 13 gigawatts of clean energy — enough to power nearly 5 million homes.

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Lincoln Laboratory and National Strategic Research Institute launch student research program to tackle biothreats to national security

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The following announcement was released jointly by MIT Lincoln Laboratory and the National Strategic Research Institute.

MIT Lincoln Laboratory and the National Strategic Research Institute (NSRI) at the University of Nebraska (NU), a university-affiliated research center designated by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), have established a joint student research program.

The goal is to bring together the scientific expertise, cutting-edge capabilities, and student capacity of NU and MIT for critical issues within global health and agricultural security, aiming to foster solutions to detect and neutralize emerging biological threats.

"We are excited to combine forces with NSRI to develop critical biotechnologies that will enhance national security," says Catherine Cabrera, who leads Lincoln Laboratory's Biological and Chemical Technologies Group. "This partnership underscores our shared commitment to safeguarding America through scientific leadership."

"In an era of rapidly evolving dangers, we must stay ahead of the curve through continuous innovation," says  David Roberts , the NSRI research director for special programs. "This partnership harnesses a unique combination of strengths from two leading academic institutions and two research institutes to create new paradigms in biological defense."

With funding from a DoD agency, the collaborators conducted a pilot of the program embedded within the MIT Engineering Systems Design and Development II course . The students’ challenge was to develop methods to rapidly screen for novel biosynthetic capabilities. Currently, such methods are limited by the lack of standardized, high-throughput devices that can support the culture of traditionally “uncultivable” microorganisms, which severely limits the cell diversity that could be probed for bioprospecting or biomanufacturing applications.

Led by  Todd Thorsen , a technical staff member in the  Biological and Chemical Technologies Group at Lincoln Laboratory, MIT students created the project, "Bioprospecting Experimentation Apparatus with Variable Environmental Regulation," which focused on developing simple high-throughput tools with integrated environmental control systems to expand the environmental testing envelope.

"This program, which emphasizes both engineering design and prototyping, challenges students to take what they learned in the classroom in their past undergraduate and graduate studies, and apply it to a real-world problem," Thorsen says. "For many students, the hands-on nature of this course is an exciting opportunity to test their abilities to prioritize what is important in developing products that are both functional and easy to use. What I found most impressive was the students’ ability to apply their collective knowledge to the design and prototyping of the biomedical devices, emphasizing their diverse backgrounds in areas like fluid mechanicals, controls, and solid mechanics."

In total, 12 mechanical engineering students contributed to the program, producing and validating a gas gradient manifold prototype and a droplet-dispensing manifold that has the potential to generate arbitrary pH gradients in industry-standard 96-well plates used for biomedical research. These devices will greatly simplify and accelerate the microculture of complex mixtures of organisms, like bacteria populations, where the growth conditions are unknown, allowing the end user to use the manifolds to dial in the optimal environmental parameters without the need for expensive, bulky hardware like the anaerobic chambers typically used for microbiology research.

"This class was my first experience with microfluidics and biotech, and thanks to our sponsors, I gained the confidence to pursue a career path in biotech," says Rachael Rosco, an MIT mechanical engineering graduate student. "The project itself was meaningful, and I know that our work will hopefully one day make an impact. Who knows, maybe one day it will lead to cultivating extremophile bacteria on a foreign planet!"

The collaboration will continue to seek DoD research funding to create workforce development opportunities for top scientific talent and introduce students to long-standing DoD challenges. Projects will take place nationwide at several NSRI, NU, Lincoln Laboratory, and MIT facilities.

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• National Strategic Research Institute

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• Education, teaching, academics
• Mechanical engineering
• Bioengineering and biotechnology
• Security studies and military
• Collaboration
• STEM education
• Synthetic biology
• Department of Defense (DoD)

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