how to write a research report uk

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Academic writing: a practical guide

• Academic writing
• The writing process
• Academic writing style
• Structure & cohesion
• Criticality in academic writing
• Working with evidence
• Referencing
• Assessment & feedback
• Dissertations
• Reflective writing
• Examination writing
• Academic posters
• Feedback on Structure and Organisation
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• Feedback on Writing Style and Clarity
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Objective, evidence-based writing commonly used in the sciences and some social science subjects.

Introduction to reports

Reports are found within many subjects, particularly sciences and some social sciences. They present factual-based information for a specified audience, with each academic discipline area having its own report types (many of which are based on real-world reports). 

This guide explores what an academic report is as a concept and offers practical advice about the completion of academic reports:

Reports: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [interactive slides]  |  Reports: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [Google Doc]

Features of reports

• Reports present and (usually) critically analyse data and other factual evidence.
• There are different types of reports , which each have a specific purpose.
• There is often a specific structure that must be followed - see our general structure advice and guidance for each report type.
• The writing style is concise and objective - for more detail, see our academic writing style advice.

The report writing process

Writing a good report isn't just about the final product - much of the thinking and hard work is done before you start writing.

Before your first report, work through the introductory guide to reports above to get an idea of what's expected of you:  Reports: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [interactive tutorial]

Read the assessment instructions carefully. Which type of report is it? Is there an expected structure? Do you need to analyse data? What's the word count? When's the deadline?

Look at the  assignment writing process  and think about how you'll plan your approach to your report.

Make a schedule: how much time do you need to research, think, plan, draft, write and edit your report? Add in some extra time for a buffer.

Follow the steps in the writing process to prepare and write your report. Try to stick to your schedule.

Check and proofread your report carefully - check your citations and references too! 

Submit your report. Maybe celebrate with some cake?

Read your feedback  carefully. How can you use it to improve your next report? 

For more detail, see our dedicated advice pages:

Note taking for synthesising information

In many types of academic writing, you need to compare and synthesise information from numerous sources. This process much is quicker and easier using an effective note-taking technique.

Grid notes  is a useful note taking technique to synthesise information. You collect information under specific headings in a grid or table, which helps you to:

• pull all your notes together in one place.
• focus on finding just the information you need in sources.
• identify patterns in source information.
• plan structure and write.

Find out more:

Grid notes [YouTube]  | Grid notes [Google Doc]

More advice about other note-taking methods:

Using evidence in reports

Sources of evidence.

Reports are based on factual evidence and data, found in sources such as:

• your own research findings (quantitative or qualitative)
• findings from research papers (quantitative or qualitative)
• published governmental or organisational datasets
• reports from companies or organisations
• business case studies

Tips on finding appropriate sources of evidence for your reports:

Reading academic journals

Writing a report usually requires reading lots of journal papers. This can seem like a massive task, but you usually don't need to read every word of a paper to get the information you need!

Find tips and strategies to read papers effectively:

Using evidence critically

It's not enough to describe or summarise the evidence - to access higher grades you'll also need to critically analyse it. What does the evidence mean in relation to your overall point or argument?

There are many ways that you could use evidence critically, such as:

• evaluate or justify methodological choices
• consider how your findings fit into previous research
• compare findings, models or frameworks
• evaluate different solutions or applications and select the most effective one
• make evidence-based recommendations

For more advice, see our dedicated criticality resources:

Research reports

Research or experimental reports present and discuss the outcomes of your research: what did you do , what did you find out , and what does it mean?

They're very common in science subjects and sometimes used in Education, Management or other subjects.

Research reports usually follow a set structure:

• introduction

Writing a research report

This tutorial introduces what's expected in each section, with advice and examples:

Writing a research report [interactive tutorial]  |  Writing a research report [Google Doc]

Many dissertations also follow this structure, so these tips also apply to research reports:

Example research reports

Example research reports may be available on your module VLE sites or from your tutors.

Research-based journal papers are also usually based on the same principles, so reading papers from your field is also a good way to see what's expected. Note that the referencing style used by the journal might be different to your department's referencing style!

This ecology paper is a well-structured example of a research paper:

Other support for report writing

Online resources.

The general writing pages of this site offer guidance that can be applied to all types of writing, including reports. Also check your department guidance and VLE sites for tailored resources.

Other useful resources for report writing:

Appointments and workshops 

As well as advice within your department, you can access central writing and skills support:

Have questions about planning or interpreting quantitative data analysis? You can book a statistics appointment with the Maths Skills Centre or explore the workshops and online resources:

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Report writing

• Features of good reports
• Types of Report

Introduction

Organising your information, abstract / executive summary, literature review, results / data / findings, reference list / bibliography.

• Writing up your report

Useful links for report writing

• Study Advice Helping students to achieve study success with guides, video tutorials, seminars and appointments.
• Maths Support A guide to Maths Support resources which may help if you're finding any mathematical or statistical topic difficult during the transition to University study.

• Academic Phrasebank Use this site for examples of linking phrases and ways to refer to sources.
• Academic writing LibGuide Expert guidance on punctuation, grammar, writing style and proof-reading.
• Reading and notemaking LibGuide Expert guidance on managing your reading and making effective notes.
• Guide to citing references Includes guidance on why, when and how to use references correctly in your academic writing.

The structure of a report has a key role to play in communicating information and enabling the reader to find the information they want quickly and easily. Each section of a report has a different role to play and a writing style suited to that role. Therefore, it is important to understand what your audience is expecting in each section of a report and put the appropriate information in the appropriate sections.

The guidance on this page explains the job each section does and the style in which it is written. Note that all reports are different so you must pay close attention to what you are being asked to include in your assignment brief. For instance, your report may need all of these sections, or only some, or you may be asked to combine sections (e.g. introduction and literature review, or results and discussion). The video tutorial on structuring reports below will also be helpful, especially if you are asked to decide on your own structure.

• Finding a structure for your report (video) Watch this brief video tutorial for more on the topic.
• Finding a structure for your report (transcript) Read the transcript.

• When writing an essay, you need to place your information  to make a strong argument
• When writing a report, you need to place your information  in the appropriate section

Consider the role each item will play in communicating information or ideas to the reader, and place it in the section where it will best perform that role. For instance:

• Does it provide background to your research? ( Introduction  or  Literature Review )
• Does it describe the types of activity you used to collect evidence? ( Methods )
• Does it present factual data? ( Results )
• Does it place evidence in the context of background? ( Discussion )
• Does it make recommendations for action? ( Conclusion )

• the purpose of the work
• methods used for research
• main conclusions reached
• any recommendations

The introduction … should explain the rationale for undertaking the work reported on, and the way you decided to do it. Include what you have been asked (or chosen) to do and the reasons for doing it.

- State what the report is about. What is the question you are trying to answer? If it is a brief for a specific reader (e.g. a feasibility report on a construction project for a client), say who they are.

- Describe your starting point and the background to the subject: e.g., what research has already been done (if you have to include a Literature Review, this will only be a brief survey); what are the relevant themes and issues; why are you being asked to investigate it now?

- Explain how you are going to go about responding to the brief. If you are going to test a hypothesis in your research, include this at the end of your introduction. Include a brief outline of your method of enquiry. State the limits of your research and reasons for them, e.g.

Introduce your review by explaining how you went about finding your materials, and any clear trends in research that have emerged. Group your texts in themes. Write about each theme as a separate section, giving a critical summary of each piece of work, and showing its relevance to your research. Conclude with how the review has informed your research (things you'll be building on, gaps you'll be filling etc).

• Literature reviews LibGuide Guide on starting, writing and developing literature reviews.
• Doing your literature review (video) Watch this brief video tutorial for more on the topic.
• Doing your literature review (transcript) Read the transcript.

The methods  should be written in such a way that a reader could replicate the research you have done. State clearly how you carried out your investigation. Explain why you chose this particular method (questionnaires, focus group, experimental procedure etc). Include techniques and any equipment you used. If there were participants in your research, who were they? How many? How were they selected?

Write this section  concisely  but  thoroughly  – Go through what you did step by step, including everything that is relevant. You know what you did, but could a reader follow your description?

Label your graphs and tables clearly. Give each figure a title and describe in words what the figure demonstrates. Save your interpretation of the results for the Discussion section.

The discussion ...is probably the longest section. It brings everything together, showing how your findings respond to the brief you explained in your introduction and the previous research you surveyed in your literature review. This is the place to mention if there were any problems (e.g. your results were different from expectations, you couldn't find important data, or you had to change your method or participants) and how they were, or could have been, solved.

• Writing up your report page More information on how to write your discussion and other sections.

The conclusions ...should be a short section with no new arguments or evidence. This section should give a feeling of closure and completion to your report. Sum up the main points of your research. How do they answer the original brief for the work reported on? This section may also include:

• Recommendations for action
• Suggestions for further research

If you're unsure about how to cite a particular text, ask at the Study Advice Desk on the Ground Floor of the Library or contact your Academic Liaison Librarian for help.

• Contact your Academic Liaison Librarian

The appendices ...include any additional information that may help the reader but is not essential to the report's main findings. The report should be able to stand alone without the appendices. An appendix can include for instance: interview questions; questionnaires; surveys; raw data; figures; tables; maps; charts; graphs; a glossary of terms used.

• A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data.
• Order your appendices in the order in which you refer to the content in the text.
• Start each appendix on a separate page and label sequentially with letters or numbers e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B,…
• Give each Appendix a meaningful title e.g. Appendix A: Turnover of Tesco PLC 2017-2021.
• Refer to the relevant appendix where appropriate in the main text e.g. 'See Appendix A for an example questionnaire'.
• If an appendix contains multiple figures which you will refer to individually then label each one using the Appendix letter and a running number e.g. Table B1, Table B2. Do not continue the numbering of any figures in your text, as your text should be able to stand alone without the appendices.
• If your appendices draw on information from other sources you should include a citation and add the full details into your list of references (follow the rules for the referencing style you are using).

For more guidance see the following site:

• Appendices guidance from University of Southern California Detailed guidance on using appendices. Part of the USC's guide to Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper.
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Library Guides

Report writing: scientific reports.

• Scientific Reports
• Business Reports

Scientific and lab reports

A good scientific report has a clear organisational structure that is divided into headings and sub-headings. The outline below details typical sections of a standard scientific report.

The structure and scientific conventions you should use in your report will be based on your department or subject field requirements. Therefore, it is always best to check your departmental guidelines or module/assignment instructions first.

Scientific reports often adopt the  IMRaD  format: I ntroduction, M ethods, R esults, and D iscussion.

The summary below outlines the standard components of a scientific report:  

The abstract is a short summary of your project. Here, you should state your research questions and aims and provide a brief description of your methodology. It also includes an overview of your most significant findings. It is best to write this last after finalising the report. 

• Introduction

This is where you set the scene for your report. The introduction should clearly articulate the purpose and aim (and, possibly, objectives) of the report, along with providing the background context for the report's topic and area of research. A scientific report may have an hypothesis in addition or in stead of aims and objectives. It may also provide any definitions or explanations for the terms used in the report or theoretical underpinnings of the research so that the reader has a clear understanding of what the research is based upon. It may be useful to also indicate any limitations to the scope of the report and identify the parameters of the research.

The methods section includes any information on the methods, tools and equipment used to get the data and evidence for your report. You should justify your method (that is, explain why your method was chosen), acknowledge possible problems encountered during the research, and present the limitations of your methodology.

If you are required to have a separate results and discussion section, then the results section should only include a summary of the findings, rather than an analysis of them - leave the critical analysis of the results for the discussion section. Presenting your results may take the form of graphs, tables, or any necessary diagrams of the gathered data. It is best to present your results in a logical order, making them as clear and understandable as possible through concise titles, brief summaries of the findings, and what the diagrams/charts/graphs or tables are showing to the reader.

This section is where the data gathered and your results are truly put to work. It is the main body of your report in which you should critically analyse what the results mean in relation to the aims and objectives (and/or, in scientific writing, hypotheses) put forth at the beginning of the report. You should follow a logical order, and can structure this section in sub-headings.

The conclusion should not include any new material but instead show a summary of your main arguments and findings. It is a chance to remind the reader of the key points within your report, the significance of the findings and the most central issues or arguments raised from the research. The conclusion may also include recommendations for further research, or how the present research may be carried out more effectively in future.

Similar to your essays, a report still requires a bibliography of all the published resources you have referenced within your report. Check your module handbook for the referencing style you should use as there are different styles depending on your degree. If it is the standard Westminster Harvard Referencing style, then follow these guidelines and remember to be consistent.

Scientific Writing Style

Scientific report/lab writing and essay writing differ in style. Compared to essay writing styles, scientific report writing styles expect the following:

• A lean and direct approach to the words chosen: do not use words unnecessarily, be concise, and always consider the purpose of each and every word.
• Each sentence must serve a purpose , so treat each sentence as important in the role it performs within the report.  
• The focus is on measurement and observation, and conveying the evidence with clarity , we therefore want to avoid using our opinions or suppositions : be objective and avoid the use of superlatives, emotive language, or wishy washy phrases, such as 'somewhat,' 'potentially,' 'possibly,' 'nearly,' and 'may be.' 
• It is important to not only begin with a question, but also the method by which you will answer that question: pre-plan and be sure of the methods you're using so that your approach is organised and systematic. Your way of answering the question must be reproducible in order to check the validity of the results and conclusions, and produce 'intersubjectively accessible knowledge.
• It is important to show your evidence , as this is what your conclusions will be based on. Be critical of the evidence, don't just tell the reader, but show the reader what it means by questioning how the evidence supports the answer to the question. 
• Maintain a rigid structure to your writing that reflects the scientific method that underlines the report: check the specific guidelines of the assignment and thoroughly follow these. If, however, you are not provided with a required structure, consider following the IMRaD structure and adapt where needed.

Recommendation: Check out the further resources for more advice, AND also take a look through scientific articles and research - use your reading effectively ! 

Reading scientific papers is an excellent way of not only developing your knowledge of a subject, but also developing your scientific writing practices and gaining a greater understanding of what is to be expected. When reading, be sure to keep in mind the author's use of language and phrases, ways of presenting and discussing evidence, and ways of organising, structuring, and formatting material, as you may wish to emulate or imitate (NOT plagiarise or copy) the styles you read.

Further Resources

Science Writing Resources for Learning by The University of British Columbia

Scientific Writing Resource by the Duke Graduate School

Scientific Writing by the Royal Literary Fund

Successful Scientific Writing  by Janice R. Matthews, John M. Bowen and Robert W. Matthews

Writing for Science Students (Palgrave Study Skills) by Jennifer Boyle

The Scientist's Guide to Writing: How to Write More Easily and Effectively Throughout Your Scientific Career by Stephen B. Heard

Writing for Biomedical Sciences Students (Macmillan Study Skills)  by Harry Witchel

Successful Scientific Writing: A Step-By-Step Guide for the Biological and Medical Sciences  by Janice R. Matthews

Date Handling and Analysis (Fundamentals of Biomedical Science)  by Andrew Blann

How to Write a Scientific Paper: An Academic Self-Help Guide for PhD Students  by Jari Saramäki

Free and Purchasable Courses:

Writing in the Sciences run by Coursera

Science Writing run by The University of Cambridge Institute of Continuing Education

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Writing a Report

• Reflective Writing
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Introduction

Reports are a common form of assignment in universities. Like essays, they are a long-form written mode of assessed work that is intended to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of your subject to your assessor. However, this is where their similarity ends. Whereas essays use evidence and argument to develop an interpretation of a given subject, reports use findings, analysis and recommendations to present an objective, comprehensive and useful account of a specific topic or issue .

In this regard, the reports that we write at university have the same structure and requirements as those that are used in business, in research, in the sciences, and in technical fields. As this handout will show, however, each of these different types has particular features and audience requirements that you will need to bear in mind when writing your own report.

Learning objectives

• To understand the nature and purpose of report writing for academic assessment
• To understand the need to know your audience when writing a report
• To understand the general components of report writing and the specific conventions of your field
• To be able to present findings, analysis and recommendations in the style of a report

Who are you reporting to?

Unlike essays, reports are a common mode of communication across a range of technical and professional sectors. While these sectors may differ considerably, what they want from a report is generally the same. That is, a clear, concise, authoritative, and structured presentation of findings and sometimes recommendations about a given topic. Thus, none of them have time for poetic expression, metaphors, ambiguity, or lengthy digressions.

Where the needs of audiences differ is with regards to the specialist knowledge and terminology associated with their field: executives in a company developing a new material will likely know what polymerisation is; executives in a company marketing that material may not. When you are writing your own reports, it is crucial to keep in mind the question of what your reader needs explained to them and what they may reasonably be expected to know already.

Different types of report

A range of disciplines ask their students to produce reports of one kind or another but, for our purposes, there are four basic types of report that it is useful to be aware of. These are:

Research reports

These reports are most often encountered in the social sciences and the humanities . They typically involve collecting and analysing data, often using statistical methods. Because they are usually intended for the consumption of other academics, they are normally written in a formal academic style. Reports of this kind tend to emphasise interpretation and analysis of findings.

Business reports

Generally found in the business school, these reports usually provide information and analysis on a business-related issue or topic. Since business reports may be written for both specialist and non-specialist audiences, it is important to read your assignment brief closely to ensure you are pitching your report at the right level. Business reports tend to have a greater emphasis on providing recommendations than other types of report.  For guidance on understanding assignment briefs, see the Centre for Academic Writing’s resource, ‘How to Analyse an Assignment Brief’.

Lab reports

At the other end of the spectrum to business reports, lab reports are written for an expert scientific audience and tend to be purely descriptive. Their focus is on experiments and investigations conducted under laboratory conditions. Focusing on methodology and results, rather than analysis or interpretation, they are written using technical language and precise scientific terminology.

Technical reports

These reports are usually found in engineering, computer science and other technical fields. Like lab reports, they tend to use technical language and terminology specific to their field, although they are occasionally used to present technical developments to a non-expert audience. Their function is usually to provide detailed information about technical subjects or projects. Consult your assignment brief to determine the degree of expertise that the intended audience is expected to have.  If this is not specified, then you can assume you are writing for your peers.

Components of a Report

Common components of a report.

The audiences for reports are often busy people looking for specific information. Therefore, reports have evolved to be highly structured pieces of writing in which a series of titled sections perform specific tasks. While not every type of report will use all of the sections we list here, they will all use a majority of them. The table at the top of each subsection below specifies whether it is likely to be required for each type of report.

A paragraph-long summary of the report which often appears before the table of contents and introduction. Its function is to summarise the general focus and findings of a report in such a way as to make it easy for people to skim it when looking at several reports on a search engine or database.

Executive summary

Also appearing at the very beginning of the report, an executive summary is a brief summary of the entire report. Longer than an abstract, it is intended to give readers a basic understanding of the entire sweep of the report so that they can decide if they need to engage with it in detail. To facilitate this, it must be written in simple and concise language and avoid complex terminology.

Table of contents

Provides a list of the report’s sections. Your assignment brief may also stipulate the inclusion of a ‘Table of figures’, which should be placed after the table of contents.

This should set out background information relating to the report, its purpose, and its basic principles. Bear in mind that this is a separate section to your abstract or executive summary. You will still need an introduction even if you have included one of these.

Literature review

This should assess the usefulness and quality of the available literature on the topic under discussion. (For detailed information on how to plan and write a literature review, see The Centre for Academic Writing’s resource on ‘Writing a Literature Review’.)

Methodology/Methods

Most reports will have a section describing how their results were arrived at. However, there is a difference between the accounts of methodology that we find in research, business and technical reports, and the methods section that we find in lab reports. These can be summarised in the following way:

Results/Findings

The results or findings section of a report presents the data or experimental results obtained via the methods set out in the previous section.

• The results should be presented in a clear, precise, and objective way.
• There should be no commentary or interpretation, only description of the results.
• It is common for this section to contain tables, charts and graphs, with technical reports also utilising diagrams, schematics and technical specifications.

In this section you interpret your findings and draw conclusions about the topic that you are reporting on. This will usually entail an analysis of your findings, a discussion of their implications, and reflection on the limitations of the methods used.

• In a research report , the analysis will contextualise the findings in relation to the research questions and the literature review.
• In a business report , analysis will be made in relation to research questions and objectives.
• A technical report analyses findings in relation to technical issues.
• A lab report relates findings to a hypothesis or experimental objectives.

The conclusion of a report provides closure for the audience. Its job is to draw together an overview of the research questions or initial hypotheses, to recap the methods and findings, and to summarise the discussion .

Recommendations

This section suggests solutions or courses of action on the basis of your analysis.

• In the case of a business report, recommendations will be addressed to the business issue at hand.
• When these sections are found in other types of reports, they are usually intended to guide further research.
• Therefore, while business reports focus on practical solutions to help a business, other reports will focus on addressing issues relating to knowledge, methods, and processes.
• Finally, business reports have a greater emphasis on recommending how their findings are to be implemented by their audience.

Reference list

As with all academic work, your report ends with a list of all of the sources you have referred to, presented in APA style (or OSCOLA where appropriate).

Appendices are typically placed after the reference list of a report. They provide additional supporting information or data that is relevant to a report, but not essential to its main body.

• In business reports , this may include financial statements, organisational charts, market research data, and survey questionnaires.
• In research reports , it may include interview transcripts, survey data, and statistical analyses.
• In technical reports , we may find technical drawings, schematics, or detailed specifications.
• Lab reports may have appendices including raw data, calculations, or technical details of an experimental procedure.
• In all cases , appendices are usually broken up into numbered sections depending on the range of their content. Thus we may find survey questionnaires labelled Appendix I, Market research data labelled as Appendix II, and organisational charts labelled as Appendix III.

Having considered the nature and structure of different types of report writing, it will be useful to take some practical steps to consolidate and develop your understanding of the form. The following exercises will help familiarise you with the tone, appearance, and priorities of reports in your discipline.

Find four examples of reports from your discipline. Using a table like the one below, consider their similarities and differences and map them to the list of sections set out above. (Remove rows that are not applicable for your discipline.)

Use the information collected in Exercise 1, write a short report with the title “The use of reports in [your discipline]. This report is aimed at students working in your field and will consist of an abstract, a table of contents, an introduction, a literature review covering the four reports, a findings section, discussion, recommendations, and a conclusion.

Recommended Reading

Additional resources.

For an excellent guide that compliments the schematic breakdown of report writing given above with a focus on the language of report writing, see CU Coventry’s ‘Writing Reports at CU Coventry’ available at: https://libguides.coventry.ac.uk/ld.php?content_id=34501498

The University of York’s ‘Academic writing: a practical guide’ has a useful section on organising your time and focus while writing a report. It can be found at: https://subjectguides.york.ac.uk/academic-writing/reports

The following books are also good sources of detailed discussion of report writing:

Lobban, C. S., & Schefter, M. (2017).  Writing undergraduate lab reports: A guide for students. Cambridge University Press.

Cottrell, S. (2019).  The study skills handbook . Bloomsbury Publishing.

Park, K. & Wang, G. T. (2016).  Student research and report writing: From topic selection to the complete paper.   Wiley.

Citing this resource

Coventry University. (2023). Writing a report [Resource]. Centre for Academic Writing. https://www.coventry.ac.uk/globalassets/media/global/writing-a-report.pdf

Further Support

Caw offers writing development workshops across all genres of academic writing, including writing a report workshop. to view available workshops and book online, visit:  https://libcal.coventry.ac.uk/calendar/caw    .

To book a one-to-one tutorial with the Centre for Academic Writing: https://libguides.coventry.ac.uk/cawlibcalhome    

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University of Sussex

• Starting at Sussex
• Critical thinking
• Note-making
• Presentations, seminars and group work
• Reading and research
• Referencing and academic integrity
• Revision and exams
• Writing and assessments
• Time management

There are six topics in this section relating to Writing and assessments:

Critical essay writing | Reflective writing | Reports (this page) | Dissertations | Academic writing style, editing and proof-reading | Feedback  | AI

A report is an informative piece of writing which explores and summarises some research – usually primary research – and which may end with recommendations for future actions. Like critical essays, reports have their own formal sections and standard structure. They are a common form of assessment at Sussex, and developing the principles of good report writing will help you to communicate well in whichever career you choose.

Elena and Tavian talk about the process of building a report

Elena: So thankfully I was actually exposed to, I did previous lab reports before coming to university because I did the International Baccalaureate. So I was quite accustomed to doing lab reports. But what helped me develop this process was the scientific method, just really knowing you have a question, a research question, go for the hypothesis, and then you look at the methods in which you can test this hypothesis. Go with the procedure, you develop a procedure, write the procedure down, then undergo the experiment. Make sure to have all your controls constant, control variable, and then you have a data set. You analyse the data, data analysis, and then you have a discussion of the data, what interpretation of the data, what went wrong as well. And then you just assess your data, assess the limitations maybe of your data and then conclude at the end, conclude the results, see if it's also statistically significant. That's more or less the process of building a lab report. Tavian: So in terms of resources for helping sort of understand how to write a report, I think the lectures do a pretty good job of sharing exactly what they expect. Definitely earlier on in university as well, and third year, they kind of expect you to know. But they do help you a lot with that. And I know that there are resources available from the university that help people, you know, understand the difference between say an essay and a report, because they are very different things. And I think that can be slightly confusing for people earlier on in their lives at university.

Understanding the Brief

Just as understanding the title is essential for an effective critical essay, for successful reports, understanding the brief is vital.

Make sure can answer these questions:

• what exactly is the report about? If you don't understand a word or phrase, look it up. If you are still not sure what you need to do, check with your tutor
• which sections does your report need? Reports differ a lot, even within the same subject
• how long should your report be? The longer the report, the more background and discussion you need
• when is the submission date? Start planning to collect your evidence as soon as possible.

The Audience

A key factor in report writing is the intended audience. Who are they? Why do they need the report? What do they want to find out? Are they looking just for information, or do they want a recommendation at the end of the report? Your brief may tell you these points, but if not, keep reflecting on what the audience wants as you write, rather than what you want to write about.

You might be asked to write for an imaginary reader, such as a business client. In this case, think about why they want the report to be produced - for example, to decide on the viability of a project.

If you are writing your report for your tutor, they want to know that you can communicate the process and results of your research clearly and accurately, and discuss your findings in the relevant context

Identifying the audience and purpose

Let’s practice putting ourselves in our audience’s shoes and imagining what they want to find out.

Step One : Read the four briefs and identify exactly who the audience is.

Step Two : Think about what the audience’s purpose is in reading the report.

Brief 1 : Write a report for the Student’s Union at Sussex on student’s attitudes to on-campus catering.

The audience are the members of the student union who want the best for the students. Therefore, they probably want to understand what the attitudes are and any recommendations for improving on-campus catering so that students are happier.

Brief 2 : Write a report on the pricing models of on-campus cafes for a catering company.

The audience are the board members of a catering company who most likely want to increase their profits. They want information about which pricing models result in the most profit.

Brief 3 : Conduct an experiment on the elasticity of chewing gum and report your findings to your lecturer.

Your lecturer wants to see that you have conducted your experiment well, and that you are able to write a report correctly and clearly.

Brief 4 : Write a report on the elasticity of chewing gum to be shown to the Sussex cleaning and facilities department.

The cleaning and facilities department probably are less interested in buying chewing gum than getting rid of it! They might be looking for information and recommendations on which methods best help to remove chewing gum.

Structuring your Report

Reports are formally structured in sections. You need to understand the function of each section so that you can structure your information appropriately. If you have been given a detailed brief and the required sections for your report, use that as the basis of your structure. If you haven't been given instructions on how to structure your report, select the most appropriate from the tabs below. Compare to other examples of reports in your discipline.

This is sometimes called the Summary or Executive Summary. It is a short overview, to help the reader to make an informed decision about whether to read the whole report. The length depends on the extent of the work, but it is usually a paragraph or two and always less than a page.

Think of an abstract as a series of short answers to questions. For example:

• what is the purpose of the work? • what methods did you use for your research? • what were the main findings and conclusions reached? • did your work lead you to make any recommendations for future actions?

The Introduction may also be called Background or Context. Explain the rationale behind the work, what you have been asked to do (or what you have chosen), the reasons for doing it and the background.

State what the report is about. What question are you trying to answer? If it is a brief for a specific reader (e.g., a feasibility report on an AI project for a client), say who they are. Describe your starting point and the background to the subject, explaining the research that has already been done.

If you have been asked to include a Literature Survey later in the report, you only need a brief outline of previous research in the Introduction. State the relevant themes and issues. Why are you being asked to investigate them now?

Explain how you are going to respond to the brief. If you are going to test a hypothesis in your research, include this at the end of your introduction. Include a brief outline of your method of enquiry. State the limits of your research and reasons for them, for example: ‘ Research will focus on native English speakers only, as a proper consideration of the issues arising from speaking English as a second language is beyond the scope of this project .’

Also called a Literature Review or Survey/Review of Research. It provides the background to your research. It is a survey of books, journals, authoritative websites and sometimes conference papers that have been published on the topic of your report. It should only include studies that have direct relevance to your research.

A literature survey should be written like an essay in a discursive style, with an introduction, main discussion grouped in themes, and a conclusion.

Introduce your review by explaining how you went about finding your materials, and any clear trends in research that have emerged. Group the texts you found in themes. Write about each theme as a separate section, giving a critical summary of each piece of work and showing its relevance to your research.

Conclude with how the review has informed your research (things you'll build on, the gaps you'll fill, etc).

Also called Methodology. The Methods section is a factual account of the activities you used to collect your evidence. You are simply stating the facts in this section. Write your Methods section in such a way that a reader could follow your description to replicate your research.

State clearly how you carried out your investigation. Explain why you chose this particular method (questionnaires, focus group, experimental procedure, etc), including techniques and any equipment you used. If there were participants in your research, who were they? How many? How did you select them?

Write this section concisely but including all essential details. Say what you did, step by step, including everything that is relevant.

(Also called Data or Findings) In this section, you state your findings. Use the format that will communicate this most effectively, e.g., text, graphs, tables or diagrams.

Think about how the data will look to the reader. Choose one format and don't repeat the same information in two forms. Label your graphs and tables clearly. Give each figure a heading and describe what the figure demonstrates.

Writing in this section should be clear, simple and informative. Save your interpretation of the results for the Discussion section.

The Discussion places your evidence in the context of the background. It will probably be the longest section and may take the most time to write.

Here, you bring everything together. You show how your findings relate to the brief and the previous research in your literature survey. Write in a discursive style. You will need to show critical analysis of your findings, by discussing the reasons for your results and using evidence from previous research to back up your explanations.

You can mention if there were any problems (for instance, if your results were different from expectations, you couldn't find important data, or you had to change your method or participants). Explain how they were or could have been solved.

The conclusion is a short section with no new arguments or evidence. Sum up the main points of your research. How do they answer the original brief?

This section may also include recommendations for action and suggestions for further research.

Writing your Report

Unlike essays, reports are objective. Report what the evidence tells you. Never present unsupported or personal opinions. Write accurately (e.g., after 25 minutes is better than later ) and objectively (e.g., negative effects is better than awful effects ).

Although essays are written in a single narrative voice from beginning to end, reports are written in sections that use different styles of writing, depending on the purpose of each section:

• introduction: Explanatory. Make the background of your report clear and give a purpose to it
• methods and Results: Factual and Descriptive. States the facts exactly as they are and provide detailed account of the characteristics of concepts and processes
• literature Survey and Discussion: Analytical and discursive. Examine complex data to discover how things work and come to a conclusion through reasoning about the data.

There are conventions for when you should use different tenses. The general rules are:

• when you are reporting your findings, use the past tense (you are reporting on something that has happened)
• when you are reporting other people's research, use the present tense (you are relating something that is established knowledge)
• when you are discussing your findings, use the present tense.

So you might write:

‘Smith (2015) argues that the precise dimensions of this variable are not crucial. However, our experiment showed wide variations in results when the variable was altered even slightly. We conclude that the correct choice of dimensions is a significant factor in achieving success with this procedure.’

Order of writing

It can be helpful to write up sections as you go along. You can write about what you've done while it is fresh in your mind and spot any gaps that require additional research. It also means that you won't have to do all the writing in one go.

Here is a suggested order for writing:

1. The Methods and Results

In general, the more factual the section, the earlier you should write it. Firstly, write the sections describing what you did and what you found.

2. Introduction and Literature Survey

Sections that explain or expand on the purpose of the research should be next. Completing these sections will help you to see how to interpret and analyse your findings.

3. Discussion

Now you can see how your results contribute to your brief and what kind of answers they point to. Write this section early enough that you still have time to fill any gaps.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

These should follow on logically from your Discussion.

5. Abstract

It’s often easier to write a summary of the main features of your report once everything else is written.

Using graphs, diagrams and images

Since reports are very factual, visuals are often very suitable additions to the texts. They can help your audience understand your findings and see how they compare with other data. The key point is that visuals must make things clearer for the audience. If you don’t need to include a graph, don’t. If a table makes your data more confusing, leave it out. All your visuals must be large enough to be read easily and clearly labelled to explain what they show. They should be numbered consecutively as figures according to where they come in the text (e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3). All tables should be numbered using a separate sequence (e.g. Table 1, Table 2).

Below are six ways of including visuals.

1. Tables  are useful for precise numerical data. Make sure they are titled and each column and row is labelled.

This work has been published under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike license (abbreviated “cc-by-sa”), Version 2.5.

3. Bar charts/graphs  are good for comparisons. The bars can be vertical or horizontal. Different colours can help the audience to differentiate the results. 

4. Pie charts  are best used for showing different proportions of various elements.

5. Drawings and diagrams  can be added where something is more clearly shown in diagrammatic form.

6. Photographs  can help to show something that is complicated to explain using just words. However, don’t include photographs just to make your report more interesting!

Showing critical analysis

According to tutors who mark reports, the discussion of the findings has the most potential for demonstrating critical analysis and gaining high marks. To do this, you need to:

• critically analyse the findings
• link the findings to the background research
• show how the findings answer the brief.

Critically analysing the findings

Analysing critically means looking at your findings and asking yourself, ‘What do I think about this?’ Then go one step further and ask, ‘What is making me think that?’ Watch the video above to see an example of how this process might work.

Linking findings to the background research

Your background reading helps you to put your findings in context and helps provide possible reasons to explain your results.

• look back over the background reading that you did for your introduction or literature survey
• compare and contrast your findings with what other people have found. Do your results confirm or contrast with their results? Why might this be?
• use previous studies to provide evidence to help explain your findings.

Showing how the findings answer the brief

The discussion of your findings needs to relate to the brief and your research questions.

• before analysing your findings, check the brief and any hypotheses you may have made
• while you are writing your discussion section, keep asking yourself ‘How does this answer my brief?'
• be ruthless and take out any unnecessary information.

Advice and guidance

Check out the Guide to Technical Report Writing  and  Guide to Laboratory Writing , which have been specifically written for engineering students at Sussex but are good reference points for everyone.

Engage in Research  is a very detailed interactive skills resource for bioscience students.

Essay and report writing skills  is a free course provided by the Open University

The text resources in this section of the website have been adapted from materials originally produced by  LearnHigher CETL  and are therefore licensed under a Creative Commons Licence. Please see Creative Commons web site  for terms of use. This licence does not extend to the videos of Sussex students and staff.

Other topics in this section relating to Writing and assessments:

Critical essay writing | Reflective writing | Reports (this page) | Dissertations | Academic writing style, editing and proof-reading | Feedback

Literature Reviews

• What is a Literature Review?
• Steps for Creating a Literature Review
• Providing Evidence / Critical Analysis
• Challenges when writing a Literature Review
• Systematic Literature Reviews

Developing a Literature Review

1. Purpose and Scope

To help you develop a literature review, gather information on existing research, sub-topics, relevant research, and overlaps. Note initial thoughts on the topic - a mind map or list might be helpful - and avoid unfocused reading, collecting irrelevant content.  A literature review serves to place your research within the context of existing knowledge. It demonstrates your understanding of the field and identifies gaps that your research aims to fill. This helps in justifying the relevance and necessity of your study.

To avoid over-reading, set a target word count for each section and limit reading time. Plan backwards from the deadline and move on to other parts of the investigation. Read major texts and explore up-to-date research. Check reference lists and citation indexes for common standard texts. Be guided by research questions and refocus on your topic when needed. Stop reading if you find similar viewpoints or if you're going off topic.

You can use a "Synthesis Matrix" to keep track of your reading notes. This concept map helps you to provide a summary of the literature and its connections is produced as a result of this study. Utilizing referencing software like RefWorks to obtain citations, you can construct the framework for composing your literature evaluation.

2. Source Selection

Focus on searching for academically authoritative texts such as academic books, journals, research reports, and government publications. These sources are critical for ensuring the credibility and reliability of your review. 

• Academic Books: Provide comprehensive coverage of a topic.
• Journal Articles: Offer the most up-to-date research and are essential for a literature review.
• Research Reports: Detailed accounts of specific research projects.
• Government Publications: Official documents that provide reliable data and insights.

3. Thematic Analysis

Instead of merely summarizing sources, identify and discuss key themes that emerge from the literature. This involves interpreting and evaluating how different authors have tackled similar issues and how their findings relate to your research.

4. Critical Evaluation

Adopt a critical attitude towards the sources you review. Scrutinize, question, and dissect the material to ensure that your review is not just descriptive but analytical. This helps in highlighting the significance of various sources and their relevance to your research.

Each work's critical assessment should take into account:

Provenance:  What qualifications does the author have? Are the author's claims backed up by proof, such as first-hand accounts from history, case studies, stories, statistics, and current scientific discoveries? Methodology:  Were the strategies employed to locate, collect, and evaluate the data suitable for tackling the study question? Was the sample size suitable? Were the findings properly reported and interpreted? Objectivity : Is the author's viewpoint impartial or biased? Does the author's thesis get supported by evidence that refutes it, or does it ignore certain important facts? Persuasiveness:  Which of the author's arguments is the strongest or weakest in terms of persuasiveness? Value:  Are the author's claims and deductions believable? Does the study ultimately advance our understanding of the issue in any meaningful way?

5. Categorization

Organize your literature review by grouping sources into categories based on themes, relevance to research questions, theoretical paradigms, or chronology. This helps in presenting your findings in a structured manner.

6. Source Validity

Ensure that the sources you include are valid and reliable. Classic texts may retain their authority over time, but for fields that evolve rapidly, prioritize the most recent research. Always check the credibility of the authors and the impact of their work in the field.

7. Synthesis and Findings

Synthesize the information from various sources to draw conclusions about the current state of knowledge. Identify trends, controversies, and gaps in the literature. Relate your findings to your research questions and suggest future directions for research.

Practical Tips

• Use a variety of sources, including online databases, university libraries, and reference lists from relevant articles. This ensures a comprehensive coverage of the literature.
• Avoid listing sources without analysis. Use tables, bulk citations, and footnotes to manage references efficiently and make your review more readable.
• Writing a literature review is an ongoing process. Start writing early and revise as you read more. This iterative process helps in refining your arguments and identifying additional sources as needed.  

Brown University Library (2024) Organizing and Creating Information. Available at: https://libguides.brown.edu/organize/litreview (Accessed: 30 July 2024).

Pacheco-Vega, R. (2016) Synthesizing different bodies of work in your literature review: The Conceptual Synthesis Excel Dump (CSED) technique . Available at: http://www.raulpacheco.org/2016/06/synthesizing-different-bodies-of-work-in-your-literature-review-the-conceptual-synthesis-excel-dump-technique/ (Accessed: 30 July 2024).

Study Advice at the University of Reading (2024) Literature reviews . Available at: https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/literaturereview/developing (Accessed: 31 July 2024).

Further Reading

Frameworks for creating answerable (re)search questions  How to Guide

Literature Searching How to Guide

• << Previous: Steps for Creating a Literature Review
• Next: Providing Evidence / Critical Analysis >>
• Last Updated: Sep 4, 2024 11:43 AM
• URL: https://library.lsbu.ac.uk/literaturereviews

Report writing

Reports are informative writing that present the results of an experiment or investigation to a specific audience in a structured way. Reports are broken up into sections using headings, and can often include diagrams, pictures, and bullet-point lists. They are used widely in science, social science, and business contexts. 

Scroll down for our recommended strategies and resources. 

Difference between reports and essays

Essays and reports are both common types of university assignments. Whilst an essay is usually a continuous piece of writing, a report is divided into sections. See this overview for more on the differences between reports and essays:

Features of reports (University of Reading)

Reports have an expected structure with set sections so information is easy to find. Science reports may have methods and results sections, but business reports may only have a discussion and recommendations section. Always check what type of structure is needed for each report assignment as they may change. See this overview of different types of report structures:

Sample report structures (RMIT University)

Finding your own headings

Sometimes you are given the choice of how to name your sub-headings and structure the main body of your report. This is common in business where the structure has to fit the needs of the information and the client. See this short video on how to find meaningful sub-headings:

Finding your own report structure [video] (University of Reading)

Purpose of each section

Each section of a report has a different role to play and contains different types of information. See this brief overview of what goes where and how to number the sections:

What goes into each section (University of Hull)

Writing style

As well as having a different purpose, each report section is written in a different way and they don’t have to be written in order. See these guides on the style and order for writing a report and on the features of scientific writing:

Writing up your report (University of Reading)

Scientific writing (University of Leeds)

Tables and figures

Reports commonly use graphs and tables to show data more effectively. Always ensure any visual information in your report has a purpose and is referred to in the text. See this introductory guide to presenting data:

Using figures and charts (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)

Further resources

If you’d like to read more about the structure and style of reports, see this resource and book list created by Brookes Library:

Writing essays, reports and other assignments reading list

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How to do a research project for your academic study

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Writing a research report is part of most university degrees, so it is essential you know what one is and how to write one. This guide on how to do a research project for your university degree shows you what to do at each stage, taking you from planning to finishing the project.

What is a research project? 

The big question is: what is a research project? A research project for students is an extended essay that presents a question or statement for analysis and evaluation. During a research project, you will present your own ideas and research on a subject alongside analysing existing knowledge. 

How to write a research report 

The next section covers the research project steps necessary to producing a research paper. 

Developing a research question or statement 

Research project topics will vary depending on the course you study. The best research project ideas develop from areas you already have an interest in and where you have existing knowledge. 

The area of study needs to be specific as it will be much easier to cover fully. If your topic is too broad, you are at risk of not having an in-depth project. You can, however, also make your topic too narrow and there will not be enough research to be done. To make sure you don’t run into either of these problems, it’s a great idea to create sub-topics and questions to ensure you are able to complete suitable research. 

A research project example question would be: How will modern technologies change the way of teaching in the future? 

Finding and evaluating sources 

Secondary research is a large part of your research project as it makes up the literature review section. It is essential to use credible sources as failing to do so may decrease the validity of your research project.

Examples of secondary research include:

• Peer-reviewed journals
• Scholarly articles
• Newspapers 

Great places to find your sources are the University library and Google Scholar. Both will give you many opportunities to find the credible sources you need. However, you need to make sure you are evaluating whether they are fit for purpose before including them in your research project as you do not want to include out of date information. 

When evaluating sources, you need to ask yourself:

• Is the information provided by an expert?
• How well does the source answer the research question?
• What does the source contribute to its field?
• Is the source valid? e.g. does it contain bias and is the information up-to-date?

It is important to ensure that you have a variety of sources in order to avoid bias. A successful research paper will present more than one point of view and the best way to do this is to not rely too heavily on just one author or publication. 

Conducting research 

For a research project, you will need to conduct primary research. This is the original research you will gather to further develop your research project. The most common types of primary research are interviews and surveys as these allow for many and varied results. 

Examples of primary research include: 

• Interviews and surveys 
• Focus groups 
• Experiments 
• Research diaries 

If you are looking to study in the UK and have an interest in bettering your research skills, The University of Sheffield is a  world top 100 research university  which will provide great research opportunities and resources for your project. 

Research report format  

Now that you understand the basics of how to write a research project, you now need to look at what goes into each section. The research project format is just as important as the research itself. Without a clear structure you will not be able to present your findings concisely. 

A research paper is made up of seven sections: introduction, literature review, methodology, findings and results, discussion, conclusion, and references. You need to make sure you are including a list of correctly cited references to avoid accusations of plagiarism. 

Introduction 

The introduction is where you will present your hypothesis and provide context for why you are doing the project. Here you will include relevant background information, present your research aims and explain why the research is important. 

Literature review  

The literature review is where you will analyse and evaluate existing research within your subject area. This section is where your secondary research will be presented. A literature review is an integral part of your research project as it brings validity to your research aims. 

What to include when writing your literature review:

• A description of the publications
• A summary of the main points
• An evaluation on the contribution to the area of study
• Potential flaws and gaps in the research 

Methodology

The research paper methodology outlines the process of your data collection. This is where you will present your primary research. The aim of the methodology section is to answer two questions: 

• Why did you select the research methods you used?
• How do these methods contribute towards your research hypothesis? 

In this section you will not be writing about your findings, but the ways in which you are going to try and achieve them. You need to state whether your methodology will be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed. 

• Qualitative – first hand observations such as interviews, focus groups, case studies and questionnaires. The data collected will generally be non-numerical. 
• Quantitative – research that deals in numbers and logic. The data collected will focus on statistics and numerical patterns.
• Mixed – includes both quantitative and qualitative research.

The methodology section should always be written in the past tense, even if you have already started your data collection. 

Findings and results 

In this section you will present the findings and results of your primary research. Here you will give a concise and factual summary of your findings using tables and graphs where appropriate. 

Discussion 

The discussion section is where you will talk about your findings in detail. Here you need to relate your results to your hypothesis, explaining what you found out and the significance of the research. 

It is a good idea to talk about any areas with disappointing or surprising results and address the limitations within the research project. This will balance your project and steer you away from bias.

Some questions to consider when writing your discussion: 

• To what extent was the hypothesis supported?
• Was your research method appropriate?
• Was there unexpected data that affected your results?
• To what extent was your research validated by other sources?

Conclusion 

The conclusion is where you will bring your research project to a close. In this section you will not only be restating your research aims and how you achieved them, but also discussing the wider significance of your research project. You will talk about the successes and failures of the project, and how you would approach further study. 

It is essential you do not bring any new ideas into your conclusion; this section is used only to summarise what you have already stated in the project. 

References 

As a research project is your own ideas blended with information and research from existing knowledge, you must include a list of correctly cited references. Creating a list of references will allow the reader to easily evaluate the quality of your secondary research whilst also saving you from potential plagiarism accusations. 

The way in which you cite your sources will vary depending on the university standard.

If you are an international student looking to  study a degree in the UK , The University of Sheffield International College has a range of  pathway programmes  to prepare you for university study. Undertaking a Research Project is one of the core modules for the  Pre-Masters programme  at The University of Sheffield International College.

Frequently Asked Questions 

What is the best topic for research .

It’s a good idea to choose a topic you have existing knowledge on, or one that you are interested in. This will make the research process easier; as you have an idea of where and what to look for in your sources, as well as more enjoyable as it’s a topic you want to know more about.

What should a research project include? 

There are seven main sections to a research project, these are:

• Introduction – the aims of the project and what you hope to achieve
• Literature review – evaluating and reviewing existing knowledge on the topic
• Methodology – the methods you will use for your primary research
• Findings and results – presenting the data from your primary research
• Discussion – summarising and analysing your research and what you have found out
• Conclusion – how the project went (successes and failures), areas for future study
• List of references – correctly cited sources that have been used throughout the project. 

How long is a research project? 

The length of a research project will depend on the level study and the nature of the subject. There is no one length for research papers, however the average dissertation style essay can be anywhere from 4,000 to 15,000+ words. 

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Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Writing and presenting reports for government: five dos and five don’ts

A guide for academics on the dos and don’ts of writing and presenting research reports designed to inform policymakers

Naresh Pandit

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Ai and assessment redesign: a four-step process, emotions and learning: what role do emotions play in how and why students learn, upgrade your teaching: four instant improvement tips, why is no one listening.

Academics are increasingly encouraged to engage with government policymakers. Many academic journals ask contributors to more clearly and comprehensively state the policy implications of their research; funding bodies allocate larger sums for work that has policy impact; and higher education institutions more clearly link staff progression and promotion to government policy engagement.

Many universities are facilitating this agenda by creating new roles for permanent staff to act as policy brokers. These individuals provide a bridge between academics and government by finding engagement opportunities and then managing the process from preparing proposals through to client management and billing. In 2018, the Universities Policy Engagement Network (UPEN) was launched. Now with more than 100 members, made up of two-thirds of UK universities, this community is committed to increasing the impact of research on policy and serves as an agent or contact point for national and international policymakers, bodies and thinktanks looking for evidence and experts.

• Resource collection: How to promote your research for greater impact
• Learning the craft of using your research to engage in policy
• Embedding equality, diversity and inclusion within public policy training for academics

The success of the impact agenda hinges on the principal “deliverables” that result from engagement, usually a report and related presentation. So, what are the key dos and don’ts when it comes to writing and presenting that final report for a government policy agent? Here are five of each, based on more than 25 years of experience.

1. Do state at the outset what you will do and what your report and presentation will look like . 

Provide examples of past work or the work of peers. Carefully listen to feedback at this time and ensure that you modify your plans accordingly. Following introductory meetings, confirm in writing your understanding of the deliverables and gain policy agent approval before proceeding. The biggest mistake that academics make in this area is producing work that, while good, is simply not what the policy agent was expecting.

2. Do spell out the implications of your work in your report.

Do this in the executive summary, again in the main text as the implications arise, and once more in the conclusion. The implications are the “sun” around which everything else in your report’s solar system revolves. Repetition underlines their importance and ensures their absorption. Implications in the form of recommendations are valued most. 

3. Do produce an agreed Gantt chart with the policy agent and do stick to that Gantt chart . 

A Gantt chart, for those unfamiliar with this term, is a project management tool that sets out planned actions against a schedule. Stating what you will do and when, and then demonstrating that you are on track by providing weekly progress reports are basic hygiene factors. Other fundamentals that you need to get right are keeping to a budget, ensuring meetings start and finish on time, and general professionalism throughout. An excellent piece of work will be severely diminished if late, a little over budget, or produced following a path not envisaged at the outset.

4. Do agree with your policy agent the division of labour within the team that you are working in. 

Chances are that the project will not be delivered by an individual but by a team. On traditional research projects, junior team members are often given stretching responsibilities such as drafting and presenting. This is done with the best of intentions as an important goal is the development of junior team members. Such an approach needs to be explained and agreed on policy projects. Your policy agent may prefer the project lead to take responsibility for producing the final draft of the report and to make the final presentation.

5. Do ensure that you leverage the work that you have done so that its impact on your career and your university’s reputation is maximised. 

The data that you have collected and analysed will be fresh and available for further or alternative analysis and so a reworking or extension can result in a journal paper or book. Attributing DOIs will help to track the impact of this output. The work that you have done will also help with research funding bids. These are often driven by national and international government interest and so it’s likely that there will be calls related to your completed work. Finally, think about opportunities to bring your work into your teaching. Your students will benefit from up-to-date findings in the subject area and your credibility as a lecturer will be strengthened. Of course, do run all these post-project intentions by your policy agent and provide assurance regarding confidentiality.

Five don’ts

1. don’t follow conventional academic practice by including your research design, sample characteristics and statistical tests in the main text..

Your readers will take the rigour of your research as a given. They will assume that your work is of high academic quality. No need to labour over this aspect of your work in the main text and cloud what your client is most interested in, which are the outcomes and implications of your research. Instead, put it in an appendix for reference.

2. Don’t comprehensively reference academic work in your report.

Again, your policy agent will expect what you have done to be informed by the relevant literature, methodological or subject-based. However, references to relevant policy documents will be welcomed. Even here, exercise parsimony and ensure that these are either seminal or current.  Facilitate easy access to these documents by providing weblinks in the list of references at the end of the report.

3. Don’t include too many slides in your presentation.

If presenting for 20 to 30 minutes, 10 key slides are more than enough. The discipline of limiting the number of slides will ensure that you focus on what’s most important and ensure that you don’t lose your audience. The idea is not to present everything in your report (that’s what the report is for), it’s to underline the key points and generate interest in reading the report, as well as providing a good basis for the Q&A session that follows the presentation. Make sure that your presentation has a clear agenda and story line. Rehearse it and keep to the allocated time.

4. Don’t lose your impartiality.

Over the course of a project, you may be drawn into or “captured” by your policy agent’s agenda. The policy agent may have views that are not supported by your findings or may wish to ignore difficult or controversial findings. As your relationship builds, it is tempting to sympathise and accommodate these biases. That is a mistake. Remember, you were commissioned in the first place because academic work is highly respected for its impartiality and validity. Compromise these and your work will not have the impact that you are seeking.

5. Don’t think that what you are doing is peripheral.

Engaging with government policy is increasingly becoming central to an academic’s work portfolio. Recall that “impact” accounted for a fifth of the Research Excellence Framework 2014 and rose to a quarter of REF 2021.  That means that a four-star impact case study has the same value as between seven and 10 four-star outputs. The weight allocated to impact may rise again in the next REF.

Conducting work for policy agents is an extremely rewarding activity. Even more so now that the REF has thrown its weight behind it. It reinforces other more traditional activities and can contribute to a rich and varied academic career that makes even more of a difference.

Naresh Pandit is professor of international business at Norwich Business School, University of East Anglia and a member of the Universities Policy Engagement Network (UPEN).

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Methodology

• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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How to write a research proposal

Drafting your first research proposal can be intimidating if you’ve never written (or seen) one before. Our grad students and admissions staff have some advice on making a start.

Before you make a start

Is it a requirement for your course.

For some research courses in sciences you’ll join an existing research group so you don’t need to write a full research proposal, just a list of the groups and/or supervisors you want to work with. You might be asked to write a personal statement instead, giving your research interests and experience.

Still, for many of our research courses — especially in humanities and social sciences — your research proposal is one of the most significant parts of your application. Grades and other evidence of your academic ability and potential are important, but even if you’re academically outstanding you’ll need to show you’re a good match for the department’s staff expertise and research interests. Every course page on the University website has detailed information on what you’ll need to send with your application, so make sure that’s your first step before you continue:

There are many ways to start, I’ve heard stories about people approaching it totally differently. Yannis (DPhil in Computer Science)

How to begin?

There isn’t one right way to start writing a research proposal. First of all, make sure you’ve read your course page - it’ll have instructions for what to include in your research proposal (as well as anything to avoid), how your department will assess it, and the required word count.

Start small, think big

A research degree is a big undertaking, and it’s normal to feel a bit overwhelmed at first. One way to start writing is to look back at the work you’ve already done. How does your proposed research build on this, and the other research in the area? One of the most important things you’ll be showing through your research project is that your project is achievable in the time available for your course, and that you’ve got (or know how you’ll get) the right skills and experience to pull off your plan.

They don’t expect you to be the expert, you just have to have good ideas. Be willing to challenge things and do something new. Rebecca (DPhil in Medieval and Modern Languages)

However, you don’t have to know everything - after all, you haven’t started yet! When reading your proposal, your department will be looking at the potential and originality of your research, and whether you have a solid understanding of the topic you’ve chosen.

But why Oxford?

An Admissions Officer at one of our colleges says that it’s important to explain why you’re applying to Oxford, and to your department in particular:

“Really, this is all dependent on a department. Look at the department in depth, and look at what they offer — how is it in line with your interests?”

Think about what you need to successfully execute your research plans and explain how Oxford’s academic facilities and community will support your work. Should I email a potential supervisor? Got an idea? If your course page says it’s alright to contact a supervisor (check the top of the How to apply section), it’s a good idea to get in touch with potential supervisors when you come to write your proposal.

You’re allowed to reach out to academics that you might be interested in supervising you. They can tell you if your research is something that we can support here, and how, and give you ideas. Admissions Officer 

You’ll find more information about the academics working in your area on your department’s website (follow the department links on your course page ). John (DPhil in Earth Sciences) emailed a professor who had the same research interests as he did.

“Luckily enough, he replied the next day and was keen to support me in the application.”

These discussions might help you to refine your ideas and your research proposal.

Layal says, “I discussed ideas with my supervisor — what’s feasible, what would be interesting. He supported me a lot with that, and I went away and wrote it.”

It’s also an opportunity to find out more about the programme and the department:

“Getting in touch with people who are here is a really good way to ask questions.”

Not sure how to find a potential supervisor for your research? Visit our How-to guide on finding a supervisor .

Asking for help

My supervisors helped me with my research proposal, which is great. You don’t expect that, but they were really helpful prior to my application. Nyree (DPhil in Archaeological Science)

Don’t be afraid to ask for advice and feedback as you go. For example, you could reach out to a supervisor from your current or previous degree, or to friends who are also studying and could give you some honest feedback.

More help with your application

You can find instructions for the supporting documents you’ll need to include in your application on your course page and in the Application Guide.

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 9 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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Harnessing the power of poetry in academic research – the author’s use of poetry as a tool for analysis

Holly Bennion, PhD graduate at Durham University 9 Sep 2024

This blog post focuses on my approach to using poetry as an analytical tool in a recent empirical study. There is an exciting body of research highlighting the potential for incorporating poetry into the various stages of the research process. Writing and sharing poems can be an effective data collection method, whereby poems are constructed by/with participants to explore their stories, feelings and memories. Poetry can also be used as an analytical/interpretative lens – for example, Carr (2003) created poems to document the experiences of family members of hospitalised relatives, transforming interview transcripts into poetry. Researchers can also use poetry to disseminate educational research and extend the tone and scope of research communication. The growing emergence of poetry in research, underpinned by arts-based research, is also connected to theoretical insights by postmodern, poststructural and feminist theories, which invites transformative and inclusive possibilities for research that goes beyond hegemonic and traditional forms of knowledge (Cutts & Sankofa Waters, 2019).

My PhD research explored children’s experiences and perspectives of belonging and school inclusion. I explored the interconnectivity in discourses on self-identification, otherness and school inclusion in multilingual and multicultural spaces. The methods included focus groups, children’s artwork, co-analysis with participants, and dance and drama workshops. As part of the data analysis process, I chose to experiment with poems. This process involved going back and forth between the transcriptions, the NVivo coding, and looking closely at the participants’ artwork and what they said about it.

To begin the process, I experimented with free-verse poetry, whereby I attempted to use poetry to identify connections between participants’ comments, further identify themes and keywords, and document my own reflections and feelings as I delved into the data.

Then, I began experimenting with structure and specific words and phrases. I used linguistic devices such as repetition to illustrate aspects that the participants felt strongly about or things they mentioned frequently. I experimented with using short, snappy lines or long, stream-of-consciousness lines to imply the tone of voice and the atmosphere of the workshops. I selected six poems to include in my thesis. Below is one example, which takes verbatim the words of the participants:

Something for you

It belongs to me and

I own it, just mine, not sharing

I may share it sometimes

My life, my bed

The first part of this poem reflects Aasab’s comment: ‘belonging is something for you, it’s like a surprise for you and we have to keep it’. I was interested in her view of belonging as a ‘surprise’. The exclamation mark was used to convey her excited tone of voice. The repetition of ‘my’ – ‘my life, my bed, my things’ – was utilised to highlight how participants often distinguished between what is ‘mine’ and ‘yours’.

‘Through poetry, I was liberated from the structured form of academic writing; I could experiment with themes, form, language, tone and imagery to interpret and represent the children’s comments about belonging and school inclusion.’

The notion of material possessions and human–object relationships was significant in the findings. Furman and colleagues (2007) note that poetry can be a powerful tool for communication through the playfulness of metaphor, alliteration and visual elements. Through poetry, I was liberated from the structured form of academic writing; I could experiment with themes, form, language, tone and imagery to interpret and represent the children’s comments about belonging and school inclusion. I found that poetry as an analysis tool gave me enthusiasm for and confidence in my data.

Reflecting on my research approach, I advocate that poetry can serve as a valuable analysis tool for research, and it can be utilised as part of a multi-level approach. Poetry can be a powerful tool for communicating the researcher’s reflections and interpretations of the data and representing the voices of participants in engaging ways. Importantly, I was not seeking to create a single narrative through the poetry. Poetry is open to interpretation; it is evocative and invites emotional engagement. Like my data collection methods – which invited collaboration, imagination and contradictions among participants – the poetry was an interesting tool that enabled multiple narratives, opinions and clarifications for the researcher and audience.

To conclude, I quote poet and academic Neil McBride (2009, p. 43):

‘[Poetry] questions, it leaves frayed edges and loose writes. It draws out the hidden, the spiritual, the underlying rhythms of life that we swamp with information, noise and news channels.’

Holly will be presenting at the  BERA Conference 2024 and WERA Focal Meeting on Monday 9 September at 12:45pm for a symposium panel on ‘Migration and Education across the Four Nations of the UK’. 

Carr, J. (2003). Poetic expressions of vigilance. Qualitative Health Research , 13 (9), 1334–1331. https://doi.org/DOI: 10.1177/1049732303254018

Cutts, Q., & Sankofa Waters, M. (2019). Poetic approaches to qualitative data analysis. Education Publications , 145. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.993   

Furman, R., Langer, C., Davis, C. S., Gallardo, H. P., & Kulkarni, S. (2007). Expressive, research and reflective poetry as qualitative inquiry: A study of adolescent identity. Qualitative Research , 7 (3), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794107078511

McBride, N. (2009, December 3). Poetry cornered. Times Higher Education , 1 (925), 42–44.   https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/poetry-cornered/409334.article

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Money blog: How to get ridiculously cheap flights - by someone who does it professionally

An employee at Jack's Flight Club has revealed to the Money blog how to find ridiculously cheap flights. Scroll through to read this plus all today's personal finance and consumer news, and this week's Money Problem.

Monday 9 September 2024 16:18, UK

• How to get ridiculously cheap flights - by Jack's Flight Club employee
• 20mph roads would see us lower insurance premiums - esure
• Young people more likely to work from office than older co-workers

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Ask a question or make a comment

Engagement rings can be traced back as far as Ancient Rome - but the modern diamond only came into fashion in the late 1930s. 

Now, almost a hundred years on, we are asking - are they still relevant, and how much would you spend on one?

Tell us your stories - do you even have one?

Fill out the comment box above, or you can also  send us a message on WhatsApp .

Ministers are not looking to soften the blow for 10 million pensioners who will no longer receive winter fuel payments, the prime minister's spokesman has said.

Ahead of a vote on Tuesday on the controversial decision to  limit winter fuel payments  to those on pension credit, the government is remaining steadfast despite growing opposition from Labour MPs, unions and charities.

Up until now, all pensioners received the payment to help with higher energy bills over the winter.

Following a cabinet meeting on Monday, Sir Keir Starmer's spokesman was asked if ministers discussed softening the impact for pensioners no longer eligible.

"Not at all," he said.

Read the full story from our politics team here ...

By Tomos Evans , Wales reporter

The average driver could save £50 per year on their car insurance premium if the 20mph speed limit were to be rolled out across the whole of the UK.

Insurance company esure says it would "proactively reduce policy prices" for its customers within three months of identifying a new 20mph zone.

Earlier this year, the company said it had seen a 20% reduction in car accident claims in Wales.

20mph became the default limit in Wales's built-up areas in September last year but was met with significant opposition.

A record-breaking petition on the Senedd's website calling for the policy to be scrapped was signed by more than 500,000 people.

The Welsh government has since updated its guidance for councils to exempt certain roads from the reduced speed limit, in an effort to get "the right speed on the right road".

In May, it was announced the speed limit on almost 4,000 of Glasgow's streets would be reduced to 20mph.

Transport Secretary Louise Haigh has said traffic speeds in England are "entirely up for local areas to decide".

Many parts of England have already changed the default speed limit on their roads.

Primark is losing more money to shoplifters than it spends on rates, its chief executive has said.

The company's billionaire boss, George Weston, said shoplifting had become "socially acceptable... with thieves facing no consequences".

Primark pays around £70m a year in business rates for its UK shops, but Mr Weston says the price of losses from theft now eclipses this.

Business rates are a tax on the occupation of a non-domestic property but have been criticised for allowing online retailers to have an advantage over their bricks-and-mortar counterparts.

He welcomed the home secretary's plans to scrap the £200 rule - which allows thieves to be charged with a summary-only offence if they steal goods worth less than £199.

A summary-only offence is less severe and is tried in a magistrates' court, with the court only able to impose a maximum jail term of up to six months (however, the offence is more likely to result in a community order, according to sentencing guidelines).

Primark has already reported that gloomy summer weather knocked sales by 3.1% - but it has also driven higher sales of autumn fashions, including the company's new collection with singer Rita Ora. 

It remains unclear what Labour's first budget next month will mean for pensions - with Chancellor Rachel Reeves refusing to rule out additional taxation.

The lack of detail has created speculation - and so experts at investment bank Saxo have provided us with quick answers to the top 10 most googled questions about pensions...

1. How will I find a lost pension?

If you're looking for a workplace pension, you can contact previous employers and get the information directly from them or many companies offer this service and track them down on your behalf. 

The government offers the Pension Tracing Service which, by using your employer's name or your information, can provide you with the details of their workplace pension provider. 

2. How much is the state pension?

The current full rate of the UK state pension is £221.20 per week, but this is dependent on how much National Insurance you've paid while working. 

To qualify, you'll need to have paid national insurance for 10 full years. 

If you're married and both of you have built up 35 qualifying years, this amount doubles to £442.40 a week, or £23,004 a year. 

3. When do pensions go up?

The state pension is increased on the first Monday on or after 6 April in line with whatever is highest out of inflation, average wage growth or 2.5%. In April 2024, the annual rise increased by more than 8.5%.

4. How much pension will I receive?

This depends on two main factors  - your NI contributions to make sure you receive the full state pension and whether you have a private pension (but there are more factors to consider as well). 

This private pension could be a Self-Invested Personal Pension that you've managed, or a workplace pension you and your employer have paid into while working. 

Other factors to consider are sector specific pension schemes (teachers' pension, NHS workers, military), how you draw down your pension and the tax implication, and your age. 

5.  Are pensions subject to inheritance tax?

Usually pensions are exempt from inheritance tax as most schemes are written as trusts, therefore they are valued separately from one's estate and not included in probate calculations - but there are exceptions: 

• Continuing guarantee payments may be subject to IHT;
• If a lump sum is paid from a value protected pension, the net of tax amount may be included in the estate; 
• If the pension owner died after reaching 75, income tax may be payable.

6. Are pensions tax-free?

It depends on the amount you are withdrawing from your pension, as income from pensions is taxed like any other kind of income. You have a personal allowance (£12,570 for the 2024-25 tax year) which is tax-free. 

You then pay 20% tax on income between £12,571 to £50,270 and 40% for any more.

7.  How much money can you have in the bank on pension credit?

There is no upper limit on how much money you can have in the bank to receive pension credit, but if you have more than £10,000 in savings and investments, the amount you receive may be reduced.

8. How do I consolidate a pension? 

Pension consolidation means combining all (or some) of your pensions into one pot. 

If you have several employers over time you are likely going to have workplace pensions in different places. There are advantages and disadvantages to both so it is best to seek advice before combining your pension.

9. How much pension pot do I need for £2,000 per month?

Using a pension calculator, the minimum amount required would be £272,000 for a £24,000 annual drawdown.

However, this doesn't include a lump sum and other factors that will be personal for you. Speak to a professional to receive tailored advice for you. 

10. Will Labour tax pensions?

Pensions are already subject to tax. Regardless of how you withdraw your pension, 25% of your total pension pot will be tax-free and you'll pay tax on the rest as if it were income. 

Asda workers will stage demonstrations outside the start of an equal pay claim that will assess whether shop floor workers should be paid the same as warehouse staff.

The case (which is expected to last for up to three months) centres on the fact the predominately female retail workforce at the supermarket giant is paid up to £3.74 per hour less than the predominately male warehouse workforce.

Claimants in the case argue both jobs are of equal value to the company.

It is just the latest stage in a 12-year battle over equal pay by Asda retail workers - and if successful, the bill could run into billions of pounds.

Nadine Houghton, GMB National Officer, said: "Asda workers are making history. The result of this hearing will call time on the retailers undervaluing their predominantly women shop floor workers.  

"The entire retail sector has been built on the structural undervaluing of women's work - but GMB members are changing this."

It comes as the Employment Tribunal ruled in favour of Next workers in a similar case involving a dispute centred on different rates of pay between job roles. 

An Asda spokesperson said: "We fully respect the right of current and former colleagues to bring this case; however, we strongly reject any claim that Asda's pay rates are influenced by gender. 

"There are numerous different jobs within retail and within warehouses. We continue to defend these claims because retail and distribution are two different industry sectors that have their own distinct skill sets and pay structures."

By Sarah Taaffe-Maguire , business reporter

German supermarket giant Aldi has repeated its commitment today to opening more stores as it reported record UK sales (this comes despite a falling market share). Pre-tax profits reached £536.7m for the 12 months to December - up from £152.6m a year earlier.

The oil price is just above a more than two-and-a-half-year low at $71.84 (£54.89). It dropped sharply on Friday afternoon amid news of a slowing US economy and weak Chinese demand.

The pound slipped below $1.31 for the first time in nearly a week. This is still high, but anyone who was on holiday in the US last week would have got more bang for their buck. Sterling is doing relatively well against the euro with £1 buying €1.1839.

Following the worst week of 2024, UK stocks have rebounded. The FTSE 100 index of the most valuable companies on the London Stock Exchange rose 0.7% while the FTSE 250 was up 0.34%.

By Megan Harwood-Baynes, cost of living specialist

A £200 flight to the Caribbean sounds almost too good to be true, but for seasoned flight finder Katy Maclure, moments like this are just another (really great) day at the office.

Katy has worked for Jack's Flight Club for almost three years and spends her day researching cheap flights and finding deals - and she's given Sky News some of her best tips.

JFC was started in 2016 by Jack Sheldon. Jack had worked for a large data company but had a knack for finding budget airfares and, after spending time doing this for his friends and family, he decided to turn it into a business - first starting as a newsletter and then a website and company that employs a dozen people.

Katy was one of those. She began as a flight finder and now edits The Detour, the company's weekly travel inspiration.

She says one of the best ways to find a steal is to look at places you might never have thought to go.

"I knew I wanted to go to the Caribbean, and I knew it was expensive - then I saw these cheap flights to Martinique from Paris.

"And Paris is easy to get to, you can just jump on an EasyJet flight or take a train."

So, for just over £200, a train (and the cost of their Airbnb), she and a friend spent two weeks in the overseas French region situated in the eastern Caribbean Sea.

The trick, she says, is going off the beaten track. Last year, she spent £175 on a return trip to Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.

"It's like the Scottish Highlands, but more extreme," she says.

"We stayed in a yurt and it was absolutely phenomenal. It would be amazing for nature lovers - we did a trek into the mountains.

"And it wasn't just nomadic and wild, when we got to Bishkek, it was so modern."

JFC operates a two-tier system for members - you can sign up for free and, each week, a roundup of deals will land in your inbox. If you sign up for their paid tier (which costs around £48 a year) you'll get those emails more frequently.

What's the deal with error fares?

They're the golden goose of airfares, and they are quite literally what they say on the tin - someone made a mistake when putting the price into the system.

Among some great error fares found by JFC was a return flight from Manchester to New York City in the low £200s, and a return to Tanzania from the UK for just £280. That deal was so good that eight of the JFC team booked a trip.

When this happens, the JFC team scramble to get them into subscribers' inboxes as fast as possible, because they can be withdrawn at any time.

Airlines don't have to honour an error fare (they can just refund you), so Katy says it's worth waiting a few weeks before booking any accommodation, just in case - and the rules are slightly different for online travel agencies.

"We've heard many stories of online travelling agencies calling up afterwards or emailing after saying 'oh, sorry, that fare's no longer available, please provide your card details and we'll charge you X amount more'.

"So just be aware that you don't have to pay, that you're not obliged to pay, that you can back out if they try and charge you more."

Katy's top tips for discount travel

1. If you have a specific date and destination in mind, set up alerts on Google flights - you will then get an email when the price changes;

2. Have an idea in mind of what you are willing to pay. If you want a direct flight, it will cost more - as will baggage, so research what these will cost ahead of time to know if you are getting a good deal;

3. Be flexible. If you can't be flexible about the dates, be flexible about the destination. 

Jobs data published tomorrow could have a significant impact on the money in your pocket.

As we mentioned in our hello post, the average earnings growth figure published by the ONS is likely to set next year's state pension rise.

The triple lock commits the government to increasing pensions every April by whichever is highest - inflation (the figure for September, published in October), average wage growth between May and July (published tomorrow) or 2.5%.

It is estimated wage growth will come in at around 3.7%, which is very likely to be higher than inflation (currently 2.2%).

This would result in an around-£400 rise to the full state pension in April.

It is sometimes forgotten that, regardless of the political commitment to the triple lock, the government is legally required to raise pensions by at least average earnings growth.

Aside from pensions, tomorrow's jobs market data could also influence the path of interest rates.

Any noticeable shift in the supply-demand dynamic - ie fewer vacancies and more workers looking for jobs - could push down wage growth.

This, in turn, could ease any lasting pressure on inflation.

Gabriel McKeown, head of macroeconomics at Sad Rabbit Investments, told industry news wire Newspage: "With inflation fears still simmering, the forthcoming UK labour market data could be the cold water that extinguishes the Bank of England's hawkish fire. 

"The latest projections paint a picture of a cooling labour market, as vacancies have fallen for nine consecutive months, while the availability of workers has increased. 

"This shift in the supply-demand balance has begun to exert downward pressure on wage inflation, suggesting a trajectory towards target. 

"Consequently, Tuesday's labour data is critical for the BoE's monetary policy decisions. 

"A September cut seems unlikely, with the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee wanting more evidence of sustained cooling in the labour market and a further moderation in wage growth. 

"However, a higher-than-expected unemployment rate or a sharper wage growth decline could tilt the MPC towards a more dovish stance."

Customers who regularly return items to ASOS now face a £3.95 fee, unless they keep at least £40 worth of items.

ASOS Premier members (who pay £9.95 for additional benefits, including next-day delivery) will also be affected - although they will only need to retain £15 worth of items to bypass the fee.

ASOS says the changes only apply to a "small group of customers with a frequently high returns rate" and will come into force from 8 October.

One customer, who is set to be hit by the change, blasted the fast fashion giant for the move.

"If you actually made clothes that fit so I wouldn't need to buy multiple sizes we wouldn't have that problem, consider me no longer a customer," she wrote online.

Another said: "Love how asos are trying to make it feel like it's a me problem... If the sizes were consistent, maybe people wouldn't return so much."

The retailer has already altered its free returns policy in the US, with shoppers now charged $4.99 if they "constantly take actions that make providing them with free returns unsustainable".

It is not the first company to do so, amid an increase in items being sent back and the high costs associated in handling unwanted items. There is also a steep environmental impact when clothes need to be disposed of if they cannot be reworn.

Last year, ASOS said the behaviour of 6% of shoppers led to a £100m hit in profits because they regularly order discounted items and send back a high proportion. The company said it was improving sizing and how clothing and accessories were displayed, with a greater use of AI to decrease the amount of returns. 

Depending on the retailer, up to half of the clothing bought on websites is returned, according to the returns specialist ReBound.

ASOS told Sky News: "We’re making this change so that we can continue offering Free Returns to all our customers (subject to our Fair Use Policy). For the vast majority of our customers, that means Free Returns on all orders – nothing’s changed.

"For a small group of UK customers with a frequently high return rate whose shopping habits make offering them unconditional Free Returns unsustainable, they can still get Free Returns when they keep £40 or more of their order. And if they’re an ASOS Premier customer, they only need to keep £15 or more."

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